https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Cox
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moody_v._NetChoice,_LLC#NetChoice
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_(1st_generation)
Friday, September 29, 2023
From ScotusBlog: Justices take major Florida and Texas social media cases
Very timely for us
- Click here for the article.
The Supreme Court on Friday agreed to weigh in on the constitutionality of controversial laws in Texas and Florida that would regulate how large social media companies like Facebook and X (formerly known as Twitter) control content posted on their sites. The laws were enacted in 2021 in response to legislators’ beliefs that the companies were censoring their users, particularly those with conservative views; the companies contend that the laws violate their First Amendment rights.
The announcement that the justices had granted review in Moody v. NetChoice and NetChoice v. Paxton came as part of a list of orders from the justices’ Sept. 26 conference, the first conference since late June in which the justices had considered new cases to add to their docket for the 2023-24 term. The justices granted review on Friday in a total of 12 cases; the remaining 10 cases will be covered in a separate story.
The Texas and Florida legislatures passed the laws at the center of the disputes in 2021. The Texas law, known as H.B. 20, bars social-media platforms with at least 50 million active users from blocking, removing, or “demonetizing” content based on the users’ views. The Florida law, known as S.B. 1072 or the Stop Social Media Censorship Act, prohibits social-media companies from banning political candidates and “journalistic enterprises.”
Technology companies went to federal court in Texas and Florida to challenge the laws, arguing (among other things) that the laws violate their First Amendment right to control what speech appears on their platform. The justices put the Texas law on hold last year while the challenges to the law continued in the lower courts. In an opinion joined by Justices Clarence Thomas and Neil Gorsuch, Justice Samuel Alito suggested that the court did not need to intervene yet. Justice Elena Kagan also indicated, without any additional explanation, that she would have allowed the law to go into effect.
Who was Dianne Feinstein?
Background from Wikipedia:
- Click here for the entry.
an American politician who served as a United States senator from California from 1992 to 2023. A member of the Democratic Party, she previously served as Mayor of San Francisco from 1978 to 1988.
. . . A San Francisco native, Feinstein graduated from Stanford University in 1955. She was elected to the San Francisco Board of Supervisors in 1969 and served as the board's first female president in 1978, during which time the assassinations of Mayor George Moscone and City Supervisor Harvey Milk drew national attention. Feinstein succeeded Moscone as mayor and became the first woman to serve in that position.
. . . After losing a race for governor in 1990, Feinstein was elected to the U.S. Senate in a 1992 special election. In November 1992, she became California's first female U.S. senator; shortly after, she became the state's senior senator after Alan Cranston retired in January 1993. Feinstein was reelected five times.
. . . She was the first woman to have chaired the Senate Rules Committee and the Senate Intelligence Committee and the first woman to have presided over a U.S. presidential inauguration. Feinstein chaired the Senate Intelligence Committee from 2009 to 2015 and was the ranking member of the Senate Judiciary Committee from 2017 to 2021.
Exit, Voice, and Loyalty
- From Wikipedia:
The Exit, Voice and Loyalty model states that members of an organization, whether a business, a nation or any other form of human grouping, have essentially two possible responses when they perceive that the organization is demonstrating a decrease in quality or benefit to the member: they can exit (withdraw from the relationship); or, they can voice (attempt to repair or improve the relationship through communication of the complaint, grievance or proposal for change). For example, the citizens of a country may respond to increasing political repression in two ways: emigrate or protest. Similarly, employees can choose to quit their unpleasant job, or express their concerns in an effort to improve the situation. Disgruntled customers can choose to shop elsewhere, or they ask for the manager.
Exit and voice themselves represent a union between economic and political action. Exit is associated with Adam Smith's invisible hand, in which buyers and sellers are free to move silently through the market, constantly forming and destroying relationships. Voice, on the other hand, is by nature political and at times confrontational.
While both exit and voice can be used to measure a decline in an organization, voice is by nature more informative in that it also provides reasons for the decline. Exit, taken alone, only provides the warning sign of decline. Exit and voice also interact in unique and sometimes unexpected ways; by providing greater opportunity for feedback and criticism, exit can be reduced; conversely, stifling of dissent leads to increased pressure for members of the organization to use the only other means available to express discontent, departure. The general principle, therefore, is that the greater the availability of exit, the less likely voice will be used. However, the interplay of loyalty can affect the cost-benefit analysis of whether to use exit or voice. Where there is loyalty to the organization (as evidenced by strong patriotism politically, or brand loyalty for consumers), exit may be reduced, especially where options to exit are not so appealing (small job market, political or financial hurdles to emigration or moving). Loyal members become especially devoted to the organization's success when their voice will be heard and when they can reform it.
Wednesday, September 27, 2023
From the Texas Tribune: Texas’ ban on certain drag shows is unconstitutional, federal judge says
Not a big surprise. I still think this is headed to the U.S. Supreme Court.
- Click here for the article.
Texas cannot enforce a new law that restricts some public drag shows, a federal judge said Tuesday in declaring the legislation unconstitutional.
U.S. District Judge David Hittner found Senate Bill 12 “impermissibly infringes on the First Amendment and chills free speech.” The struck-down law prohibited any performers from dancing suggestively or wearing certain prosthetics in front of children.
Hittner ruled that language discriminated based on viewpoint and is unconstitutionally overbroad and vague.
“The Court sees no way to read the provisions of SB 12 without concluding that a large amount of constitutionally-protected conduct can and will be wrapped up in the enforcement of SB 12,” the ruling reads. “It is not unreasonable to read SB 12 and conclude that activities such as cheerleading, dancing, live theater, and other common public occurrences could possibly become a civil or criminal violation.”
The plaintiffs who sued the state celebrated the order, saying in statements shared by their lawyers that the decision affirmed their rights to express themselves.
“I am relieved and grateful for the court's ruling,” drag performer Brigitte Bandit said. “My livelihood and community has seen enough hatred and harm from our elected officials. This decision is a much needed reminder that queer Texans belong and we deserve to be heard by our lawmakers.”
Republican state Sen. Bryan Hughes, who authored SB 12, defended the bill and pledged to challenge the ruling. The Texas Attorney General's Office will appeal the ruling, a spokesperson said.
“Surely we can agree that children should be protected from sexually explicit performances. That’s what Senate Bill 12 is about," Hughes said. "This is a common sense and completely constitutional law, and we look forward to defending it all the way to the Supreme Court if that’s what it takes."
From Wikipedia: Government shutdowns in the United States
Some background
If the U.S. Congress does not pass the 2024 budget (the 2024 appropriations bill actually) before the start of the 2024 fiscal year, then money cannot be drawn from the Unites States Treasury. Doing so would violate the U.S. Constitution.
Money can still be drawn from the treasuries of state and local government.
This isn't the first time this has happened. Wikipedia has the details:
- Click here for the entry.
In the United States, government shutdowns occur when funding legislation required to finance the federal government is not enacted before the next fiscal year begins. In a shutdown, the federal government curtails agency activities and services, ceases non-essential operations, furloughs non-essential workers, and retains only essential employees in departments that protect human life or property. Shutdowns can also disrupt state, territorial, and local levels of government.
Funding gaps began to lead to shutdowns in 1980, when Attorney General Benjamin Civiletti issued a legal opinion requiring it. This opinion was not consistently adhered to through the 1980s, but since 1990 all funding gaps lasting longer than a few hours have led to a shutdown. As of September 2023, ten funding shutdowns have led to federal employees being furloughed.
The most significant shutdowns have included the 21-day shutdown of 1995–1996, during the Bill Clinton administration, over opposition to major spending cuts; the 16-day shutdown in 2013, during the Barack Obama administration, caused by a dispute over implementation of the Affordable Care Act (ACA); and the longest, the 35-day shutdown of 2018–2019, during the Donald Trump administration, caused by a dispute over funding an expansion of barriers on the U.S.–Mexico border.
Shutdowns disrupt government services and programs; they close national parks and institutions. They reduce government revenue because fees are lost while at least some furloughed employees receive back pay. They reduce economic growth. During the 2013 shutdown, Standard & Poor's, the financial ratings agency, said on October 16 that the shutdown had "to date taken $24 billion out of the economy", and "shaved at least 0.6 percent off annualized fourth-quarter 2013 GDP growth".
Previous shutdowns:
- 1981
- 1984
- 1986
- 1990
- 1995–1996
- 2013
- January 2018
- December 2018–January 2019
How will this impact Texas?
- How the looming government shutdown will affect Texans.
From ABCNews: When's Houston hosting another Super Bowl? Astrodome's unsettled future may hold key to the answer
For local economic policy.
- Click here for the article.
For more than a half century, sports teams and sporting events have been woven into the fabric of Houston. While the venues in which the big games are played have changed, our city's passion for playing host has remained fervent.
Space City is a host city, from the NCAA Final Four to the FIFA World Cup, Super Bowls, and to even BMX events.
"We really try not to make it cookie-cutter," Janis Burke, CEO of the Harris County-Houston Sports Authority, revealed about her team's approach to bidding on marquee events. "We really crawl inside the skin of that event. How can we put the Houston thumbprint on it and make it different and special and bigger and better than ever before? We just kept bidding on our reputation."
. . . The venue known most of the time as NRG Stadium has and will host major sporting events for years. But just steps away, the Astrodome has been dormant for decades. But the stadium known to many as the "8th Wonder of the World" just might be keeping its neighbor, NRG Stadium, from hosting its third Super Bowl.
"Greg Grissom, the president of Texans, and I have been talking about the next Super Bowl bid," Burke disclosed. "To be honest, we do need to figure out the Astrodome situation. I know (Harris County) has that on their radar, and they are trying to come up with a solution for that. I think that will matter. So, again, we're strategically looking at how we put that in the mix. Whatever we do, whether it's a renovation or a teardown, but I think that will matter to the NFL."
After being asked if it's safe to say Houston will not bid on another Super Bowl until the Astrodome's future is determined, Burke agreed it was safe to say.
The Astrodome, now stripped and empty, is owned by Harris County. As of 2021, the county paid $400,000 annually for maintenance and insurance. In 2018, the Astrodome became a Texas historical landmark. It's also designated as a State Antiquities Landmark and is part of the National Register of Historic Places.
. . . Ryan M. Walsh, CEO and executive director of NRG Park, provided a statement to ABC13 about the status of the Astrodome and the claim it's impacting Houston's next Super Bowl bid:
"We are working with stakeholders to find the solution that works best for our community. While those high-profile events are great, the County is interested in taking a well-reasoned, thoughtful approach to the re-energizing of NRG Park that will maximize benefit to our entire community for decades to come."
Harris County Precinct 2 Commissioner Adrian Garcia also weighed in on Burke's assertion that the Astrodome's future must be decided before Houston can bid on hosting the biggest football game on the planet.
The ‘Green Bay Sweep’: A Trump adviser’s plot to overturn the 2020 election
A loo at the attempt to override the presidential electoral votes in 2020.
- Wikipedia: Peter Navarro.
- Wikipedia:
- DOJ: Peter Navarro Indicted for Contempt of Congress.
- Trump adviser Peter Navarro guilty of contempt for dodging Jan 6 subpoena.
- Wikipedia: Peter Navarro.
- Wikipedia:
- DOJ: Peter Navarro Indicted for Contempt of Congress.
- Trump adviser Peter Navarro guilty of contempt for dodging Jan 6 subpoena.
Tuesday, September 26, 2023
Voter suppression in the United States
From Wikipedia
- Click here for the entry.
Voter suppression in the United States consists of various legal and illegal efforts to prevent eligible citizens from exercising their right to vote. Such voter suppression efforts vary by state, local government, precinct, and election. Voter suppression has historically been used for racial, economic, gender, age and disability discrimination. Before and during the American Civil War, most African-Americans had not been able to vote. After the Civil War, all African-American men were granted voting rights, causing some Southern Democrats and former Confederate states to institute actions such as poll taxes or language tests that were ostensibly not in contradiction to the U.S. Constitution at the time, but were used to limit and suppress voting access, most notably African American communities that made up large proportions of the population in those areas, but in many regions the majority of the electorate as a whole was functionally or officially unable to register to vote or unable to cast a ballot. African Americans' access to registration and voting in the South was often difficult until the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and continues to be a subject of debate.
In the 21st century, some fear voter suppression has been revived, at least in part due to the 2013 US Supreme Court ruling of Shelby County v. Holder, which ruled that the enforcement of the Voting Right's Act power requiring that the federal government give preclearance to states with a history of voter discrimination was unconstitutional because it used a coverage formula based on over 40 year old data. Since then (and as of March 24, 2021), more than 361 bills that would restrict voting access have been introduced in 47 states according to the Brennan Center for Justice.
From Scotusblog: Court denies Alabama’s request to use voting map with only one majority-Black district
The ongoing attempt to go around the Voting Rights Act, keeps on going . . .
- Click here for the article.
The Supreme Court on Tuesday rejected Alabama’s request to allow it to use a congressional map in the 2024 elections that a lower court had concluded likely violates the Voting Rights Act. The brief unsigned order, from which there were no public dissents, came less than four months after a divided Supreme Court agreed that the 2021 iteration of the map violated federal law by weakening the collective voting power of Black voters in the state.
Tuesday’s order from the Supreme Court means that the redistricting process in Alabama will go forward with court-appointed experts preparing new maps that include a second majority-Black district.
The dispute arises from Alabama’s efforts to draw a new congressional map in the wake of the 2020 census for its seven seats in the House of Representatives. Nearly 27 percent of the state’s residents are Black, but the map that the state’s legislature enacted in 2021 had just one majority-Black district. That prompted voters and civil rights groups to go to federal court, where they argued that the 2021 map diluted the voting power of Black people.
A federal court in Alabama agreed with the challengers that the 2021 map likely violated Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act, which bans racial discrimination in voting. In February 2022, the Supreme Court temporarily put that order on hold, which allowed Alabama to use its map in the 2022 elections, and agreed to review the lower courts’ decisions.
In June of this year, a divided Supreme Court upheld the lower court’s decision in favor of the challengers. Writing for the majority, Chief Justice John Roberts explained that the lower court had “faithfully applied our precedents and correctly determined that, under existing law,” the 2021 map violated Section 2. Roberts also rejected what he characterized as Alabama’s efforts to “remake our §2 jurisprudence anew,” by urging the court to hold that maps should be drawn without considering race at all.
In a concurring opinion, Justice Brett Kavanaugh acknowledged an argument made by Justice Clarence Thomas in his dissent: the idea that “even if Congress in 1982 could constitutionally authorize race-based redistricting under §2 for some period of time,” it cannot do so indefinitely.
The state returned to the drawing board, and in July the legislature enacted a new plan that once again contained only one majority-Black district. Finding it “substantially likely” that the 2023 map violates the Voting Rights Act because it failed to create an additional majority-Black district or “something close to it,” the lower court appointed two experts to draw a new map.
Alabama came back to the Supreme Court on Sept. 11, asking the justices to intervene quickly. It told the Supreme Court that the lower court had rejected the 2023 map solely because it did not contain a second majority-Black district – which, the state argued, the Supreme Court has said is not required. And citing the court’s recent decisions striking down the consideration of race in university admissions, the state contended that the lower court’s rule “has no logical endpoint,” but would instead require it to “have to continue intentionally creating a second majority-black district in lieu of keeping together” local communities indefinitely.
The challengers urged the justices to stay out of the dispute, comparing Alabama’s failure to draw a second district that gives Black voters the opportunity to elect the candidate of their choice with the southern states’ resistance to desegregation during the civil rights era. And they cautioned that putting the lower courts’ orders on hold will make it “all but certain” that the state will hold the 2024 elections using “an unlawful, dilutive” plan.
From Coastal Law, LLC: What’s the “Kansas Two-Step?” How Police Trick Motorists into Giving up Their Rights
Probable cause can be manufactured. Here's how:
- Click here for the article.
Once an officer has written a ticket and completed the legitimate purpose of the traffic stop, the motorist must be released unless 1) there is reasonable suspicion of further crime like drug activity or 2) the driver gives consent to stay and chat (or have their car searched).
What the ACLU is calling the “Kansas Two-Step” is the practice of handing the driver their ticket or warning, taking two steps toward their patrol car, then turning around again and asking the driver if they don’t mind answering a few more questions:
The idea is that, if the driver says, “sure,” then the traffic stop turns into a consensual encounter. It is no longer a detention because the driver is now agreeing to hang around a bit longer. Therefore, there is no Fourth Amendment violation.
Most people, unwilling to rock the boat and risk making the guy with a gun mad at them, will simply agree. When a person doesn’t agree, the officer detains them anyway and calls for a K-9 unit if one is not already there.
If drugs or money are found, the motorist can’t challenge the search because they consented to it. If no drugs or money are found, no harm done, right? The motorist goes on their way and the officer moves on to the next black or brown person in a rental car with out of state tags…
When the officer completes the legitimate traffic stop and attempts to initiate a second, consensual encounter, they will usually give some version of “the speech.”
“We’ve been having a lot of trouble out here on the interstate with drugs and guns, you don’t have anything like that in your car, do you?” (No, sir, I don’t) “Well, then, you won’t mind if we have a look, would you?”
At this point, with few exceptions, the officer is going to search the person’s car. The only questions are 1) Does the officer have probable cause to search, or 2) did the person consent to the search?
If a motorist refuses consent to search their vehicle, the officer will probably either 1) wait for a drug dog to arrive that will give him probable cause to search or 2) search anyway. Then it will be a matter for the courts as to whether the officer had a “reasonable, articulable suspicion” that justified searching the vehicle.
Manufacturing Probable Cause
The officer will usually ask questions, not to be friendly and chit-chat, but to manufacture probable cause to support their search of your vehicle. Where are you from? Where are you headed? How long are you staying there?
These sound like normal, conversational icebreakers. Except, if you answer [insert any large city], and that you stayed a few days, the officer will make a note that you are traveling either to or from a “major drug hub,” and that they did not observe any luggage in your vehicle – this will later somehow become probable cause that you are a drug trafficker.
If there is a passenger in the car, they might ask them questions separately – any deviation in their response from your responses will be seen as probable cause to search.
What are some facts cited by SC police as probable cause to search? The driver appeared nervous;
- The passenger appeared nervous;
- I observed the driver’s heartbeat pulsing through his shirt;
- I observed the driver’s pulse beating in his neck;
- Air fresheners were hanging on the rear-view mirror;
- They were driving a rental car;
- They were driving a car with out of state tags;
- The driver and passenger’s stories didn’t match;
- There was no luggage in the vehicle; or
- The driver was traveling either to or from a “major drug hub” (any large city in the United States).
All of this is conduct that describes ordinary, law-abiding citizens just as it could describe a drug trafficker.
Voter Registration
- Wikipedia:
- Video: SOS 101: Voter Registration in Texas.
- Harris County Clerk's Office: Registering to Vote.
- Brazoria County Clerk's Office: Registering to Vote.
- Texas Secretary of State: Request for Voter Registration Applications.
Voter registration in the United States is required for voting in federal, state and local elections in the United States. The only exception is North Dakota, although cities in North Dakota may register voters for city elections. Voter registration takes place at the county level in many states and at the municipal level in several states. Most states set cutoff dates for voter registration and to update details, ranging from 2 to 4 weeks before an election; while a third of states have Election Day or "same-day" voter registration which enables eligible citizens to register or update their registration when they vote before or on election day.
It has been argued that some registration requirements deter some people (especially disadvantaged people) from registering and therefore exercising their right to vote, resulting in a lower voter turnout. Several consequences of registering for voting are mentioned sometimes as deterrents for registration, like to serve jury duty, to be drafted into the military, or to update car insurance in case of changing address of residence, for example. But many of these claims are false or, like being listed as potential juror, are only applicable to certain jurisdictions or are not the only way to be called in to serve.
- Video: SOS 101: Voter Registration in Texas.
- Harris County Clerk's Office: Registering to Vote.
- Brazoria County Clerk's Office: Registering to Vote.
- Texas Secretary of State: Request for Voter Registration Applications.
Monday, September 25, 2023
A few items related to regulations regarding artificial intelligence
- Electronic Privacy Information Center: The State of State AI Laws: 2023.
- National Conference of State Legislatures: Artificial Intelligence 2023 Legislation.
- White House: Blueprint for an AI Bill of Rights.
- Wikipedia: Regulation of artificial intelligence.
- National Artificial Intelligence Initiative.
Sunday, September 24, 2023
From the Galveston Daily News: Talk resumes about redeveloping grain-elevator land at Port of Galveston
For our look at local politics and economic development.
- Click here for the article.
Grain elevators that have been towering above Harborside Drive near Pier 25 for about 40 years are taking up space that might be used for more profitable endeavors, one influential port leader argues.
Jim Yarbrough, a member of Wharves Board of Trustees, which governs the public docks, has been arguing since at least 2016, when he was mayor, that the grain business has gotten soft and tenuous and waterfront leaders should consider whether there’s a higher and better use of that port land.
The port has been shipping grain from elevators for almost 150 years. The first grain elevator went up in 1875, then blew up in 1977 when a spark ignited grain dust, killing about 15 people.
“At one time, the grain elevators produced a lot of jobs and money,” Yarbrough said. “Over time that has dwindled down to not much. It doesn’t produce that many jobs.”
Among the first questions Yarbrough asked when he joined the board was when the lease agreement for the property expired, he said.
“It takes the port a while to move and do things,” Yarbrough said. “My hopes were to implode or get rid of the grain elevators.”
__________
- Galveston Wharves Board of Trustees.
1788–89 United States presidential election
How was the first presidential election conducted?
- Click here for the Wikipedia entry.
No nomination process existed at the time of planning, and thus, the framers of the Constitution presumed that Washington would be elected unopposed. For example, Alexander Hamilton spoke for national opinion when in a letter to Washington attempting to persuade him to leave retirement on his farm in Mount Vernon to serve as the first President, he wrote that "...the point of light in which you stand at home and abroad will make an infinite difference in the respectability in which the government will begin its operations in the alternative of your being or not being the head of state."
Another uncertainty was the choice for the vice presidency, which contained no definite job description beyond being the President's designated successor and presiding over the Senate. The Constitution stipulated that the position would be awarded to the runner-up in the Presidential election. Because Washington was from Virginia, then the largest state, many assumed that electors would choose a vice president from a northern state. In an August 1788 letter, U.S. Minister to France Thomas Jefferson wrote that he considered John Adams and John Hancock, both from Massachusetts, to be the top contenders. Jefferson suggested John Jay, John Rutledge, and Virginian James Madison as other possible candidates. Adams received 34 electoral votes, one short of a majority – because the Constitution did not require an outright majority in the Electoral College prior to ratification of the Twelfth Amendment to elect a runner-up as vice president, Adams was elected to that post.
Voter turnout comprised a low single-digit percentage of the adult population. Though all states allowed some rudimentary form of popular vote, only six ratifying states allowed any form of popular vote specifically for presidential electors. In most states only white men, and in many only those who owned property, could vote. Free black men could vote in four Northern states, and women could vote in New Jersey until 1776. In some states, there was a nominal religious test for voting. For example, in Massachusetts and Connecticut, the Congregational Church was established, supported by taxes. Voting was hampered by poor communications and infrastructure and the labor demands imposed by farming. Two months passed after the election before the votes were counted and Washington was notified that he had been elected president. Washington spent eight days traveling from Virginia to New York for the inauguration. Congress took twenty-eight days to assemble.
As the electors were selected, politics intruded, and the process was not free of rumors and intrigue. For example, Hamilton aimed to ensure that Adams did not inadvertently tie Washington in the electoral vote. Also, Federalists spread rumors that Anti-Federalists plotted to elect Richard Henry Lee or Patrick Henry president, with George Clinton as vice president. However, Clinton received only three electoral votes.
__________
Some You Tube Videos:
- The oddities of the first American election.
- The election of George Washington was weirder than you think.
From CNBC: With flurry of FAA approvals, many more drones are about to fly over U.S. skies
For a future look at regulatory policy and executive agencies. For now we can think about this in terms of the activities that relevant interest groups had on the decision made by the FAA.
- Click here for the story.
This week, drone delivery company Zipline was granted Federal Aviation Administration approval to fly drones beyond the visual line of sight. That’s a major milestone in efforts to extend the range of the domestic drone industry over U.S. airspace, and Zipline isn’t the only drone operator to recently receive FAA approval.
In a series of moves in August and earlier in September, the FAA gave the same clearance to UPS subsidiary Flight Forward (which delivers packages by drone), avionics provider uAvionix, and drone inspection provider Phoenix Air Unmanned. It’s a regulatory aim that the drone companies have been working towards for a decade and will pave the way for other companies to receive streamlined approval for their own drone flights beyond the visual line of sight. It will also potentially push more consumer companies to accelerate efforts to deliver goods by unmanned aircraft, including giants such as Walmart and Amazon, the latter of which has been viewed as falling behind in its decade-long drone delivery effort.
The FAA told aviation publication Flying that the approvals will serve as the basis for “summary grants” in the future as it continues to work towards formal rulemaking and to help fast track business models similar to the ones to receive the first approvals, meaning package delivery, drone inspections, medical supplies and drone aviation system development, such as uAvionix.
Thursday, September 21, 2023
James E. Ferguson
Texas' first impeachment, only partially successful, involved Mr. Ferguson.
Related topics:
- white supremacy.
- white primary.
- spoils system.
- Click here for his Wikipedia entry:
Ferguson was born to the Reverend James E. Ferguson, and Fannie Ferguson near Salado in south Bell County, Texas. At age 12 he entered Salado College (a preparatory school) but was eventually expelled for disobedience. At 16, he left home and drifted through the states of the American West, working successively in a vineyard, a mine, a barbed wire factory, and at a grain ranch. After he returned to Texas, he studied law in Bell County and was admitted to the bar.
On December 31, 1899, he married Miriam A. Wallace at her family home. They had two daughters: Ouida Wallace Ferguson, and Dorrace Watt Ferguson. In 1903, Ferguson was elected as city attorney in Belton, Texas. In addition, he established Farmers State Bank. In 1906, he sold Farmers bank and established Temple State Bank.
He also became active in the Democratic Party and managed several local political campaigns. He believed that "a Negro has no business whatever taking a part in the political affairs of the Democratic party, the white man's party." A part of his appeal as a candidate for governor was his support for white supremacy in the political process.
In 1914, Ferguson was elected as governor of Texas by running as an anti-prohibitionist Democrat. When the Democratic Party dominated the Texas political landscape, winning the Democratic primary often sealed the election results. Ferguson was the only "wet" candidate in the Democratic primary and garnered all of the anti-prohibitionist votes over a plurality of "dry" candidates.
Prior to his inauguration, Ferguson conferred with officials at the University of Texas regarding appointments affecting learning and higher education. According to historian Dan Utley, Ferguson planned to use state appointments as part of a spoils system to reward his political supporters.
________
For more:
- History of the Banking Industry in Texas and the Department.
- - private
- - community
- - state.
- - national
- A Banking History of Texas.
- Banks and Banking.
Wednesday, September 20, 2023
From the Texas Tribune - 9/20/23
- As federal money flows to carbon capture and storage, Texas bets on an undersea bonanza.
- Austin will try again to tame its housing affordability crisis with zoning reforms. Can it do it this time?
- Texas made it illegal to punish students for dreadlocks. A school is testing the limits of the law.
- State Rep. Rhetta Bowers latest to join race for Colin Allred’s U.S. House seat.
- Texas A&M System’s guidance on the state’s DEI ban shows compliance might be a hard needle to thread.
Tuesday, September 19, 2023
Catching up on the news - 9/19/23
All from the Houston Chronicle.
- University of Houston's rankings just skyrocketed. Voters can raise it higher.
- ERCOT CEO talks Texas grid emergency, conservation requests and rising demand on the grid.
- After panic over directive to slash school budgets, HISD leaders call the order 'an error'
- Harris County approves lower tax rate for fifth year in a row, $2.4B budget for 2024.
- 'Don't cross her': How DA Kim Ogg has repeatedly aimed her power at Harris County officials.
- Gov. Abbott vows to call October special session on school vouchers after months of deadlock.
The Political Freedoms in the Texas Bill of Rights and the Texas Public Information Act
- Click here for the entire Texas Bill of Rights.
Political Freedoms:
Sec. 8. FREEDOM OF SPEECH AND PRESS; LIBEL. Every person shall be at liberty to speak, write or publish his opinions on any subject, being responsible for the abuse of that privilege; and no law shall ever be passed curtailing the liberty of speech or of the press. In prosecutions for the publication of papers, investigating the conduct of officers, or men in public capacity, or when the matter published is proper for public information, the truth thereof may be given in evidence. And in all indictments for libels, the jury shall have the right to determine the law and the facts, under the direction of the Court, as in other cases.
Sec. 27. RIGHT OF ASSEMBLY; PETITION FOR REDRESS OF GRIEVANCES. The citizens shall have the right, in a peaceable manner, to assemble together for their common good; and apply to those invested with the powers of government for redress of grievances or other purposes, by petition, address or remonstrance.
__________
Texas Public Information Act:
- Overview of the Public Information Act.
- The Texas Public Information Act.
- TEXAS PUBLIC INFORMATION ACT LAWS MADE EASY.
__________
Freedom of Information Act
- Wikipedia.
__________
Possible written assignment?
- Should Texas add a "right to information" amendment? Who might oppose it? Why? (I can think of a few)
The Gutenberg Printing Press and Its Effect on Mass Communication
More on the man in question:
- Johannes Gutenberg.
More on the professional association which produced the video.
- Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
- Lobbying profile.
- IEEE Lobbying Compliance Guidelines.
- Lobbying News & Articles.
- IEEE LOBBYING ACTIVITY REPORT.
Title 1 of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 - Voting Rights
- Click here for the text.
The intro:
No person acting under color of law shall--
"(A) in determining whether any individual is qualified under State law or laws to vote in any Federal election, apply any standard, practice, or procedure different from the standards, practices, or procedures applied under such law or laws to other individuals within the same county, parish, or similar political subdivision who have been found by State officials to be qualified to vote;
"(B) deny the right of any individual to vote in any Federal election because of an error or omission on any record or paper relating to any application, registration, or other act requisite to voting, if such error or omission is not material in determining whether such individual is qualified under State law to vote in such election; or
"(C) employ any literacy test as a qualification for voting in any Federal election unless (i) such test is administered to each individual and is conducted wholly in writing, and (ii) a certified copy of the test and of the answers given by the individual is furnished to him within twenty-five days of the submission of his request made within the period of time during which records and papers are required to be retained and preserved pursuant to title III of the Civil Rights Act of 1960
- Congressional Research Service.
Title I19 of the 1964 Act amended voting provisions of an earlier statute, the Civil Rights Act of 1957 (1957 Civil Rights Act),20 to address “problems encountered in the operation and enforcement” of these earlier provisions.21 Title I was not the first time Congress amended the 1957 Civil Rights Act—it had previously done so through the Civil Rights Act of 1960.22 These earlier legislative efforts, however, had failed to effectively “counteract state and local government tactics of using, among other things, burdensome registration requirements to disenfranchise African–Americans.”23 Title I thus amended the 1957 Act to “outlaw[] some of the tactics used to disqualify Negroes from voting.”24 The voting provisions of Title I and the 1957 Civil Rights Act are distinct from the Voting Rights Act of 1965 (VRA),25 and generally lesser known—a circumstance that some scholars have attributed to the effectiveness of the VRA, which was enacted just a year after Title I.26
Provisions of Title I, however, continue to be litigated, including in recent years to challenge state voter registration practices.27 As discussed below, Title I added provisions28 prohibiting (1) the use of different standards for qualifying voters;29 (2) certain uses of literacy or “interpretation” tests;30 and (3) the denial of the right to vote based on immaterial errors in a registration or other voting document.31 In addition, to “help meet the problem of lengthy and often unwarranted delays,”32 Title I of the 1964 Act further amended the 1957 Civil Rights Act to expedite judicial review of voting cases.33 Legislative history reflects two constitutional bases for enacting Title I: Congress’s power to enforce the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment and to enforce the Fifteenth Amendment of the Constitution.34
Relatedly, the Supreme Court has construed the voting provisions of the 1957 Civil Rights Act as an exercise of Congress’s authority under the Fifteenth Amendment.
- Wikipedia.
This title barred unequal application of voter registration requirements. Title I did not eliminate literacy tests, which acted as one barrier for black voters, other racial minorities, and poor whites in the South or address economic retaliation, police repression, or physical violence against nonwhite voters. While the Act did require that voting rules and procedures be applied equally to all races, it did not abolish the concept of voter "qualification". It accepted the idea that citizens do not have an automatic right to vote but would have to meet standards beyond citizenship.
- Library of Congress.
- Title I of the Civil Rights Act in Contemporary Voting Rights Litigation.
Friday, September 15, 2023
The Langer Report | Understanding Evil
- From the Central Intelligence Agency: A Psychological Analysis of Adolph Hitler by Walter Langer.
- Klara Hitler's Son: Reading the Langer Report on Hitler's Mind.
- NYT: 1943 O.S.S. Study Called Hitler Weak and a Bully.
- Washington Post: Walter C. Langer, Wrote Mental Study of Hitler.
- Wikipedia: Walter Charles Langer.
From the Texas Tribune: Taxes, state parks, infrastructure: What you need to know about the Nov. 7 constitutional amendments election
We will discuss these, along with other items on the upcoming ballot in the upcoming November election, soon. Mostly in 2306, but also in 2305 when appropriate.
Remember that elections in odd number years are for local matters, in addition to Texas constitutional amendments. Elections to national and state office - all run by local governments under laws passed by the state - happen only on even number years.
- Click here for the article.
Wednesday, September 13, 2023
From the Guardian: Minnesota lawsuit seeks to bar Trump from ballot under 14th amendment
Regarding how Section 3 of the 14th Amendment could be enforced:
- Click here for the story.
A group of Minnesota voters filed a lawsuit on Tuesday seeking to remove Donald Trump from the ballot in their state, escalating the effort to disqualify the former president from running based on untested constitutional language that prohibits anyone who has “engaged in insurrection” from holding office.
The voters are being represented by Free Speech for People, a left-leaning group that has aggressively been pushing to remove Trump from the ballot in several states. A similar lawsuit was filed in Colorado last week by Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington, another watchdog group.
The petition, filed with the Minnesota supreme court, argues that Trump’s activities to overturn the election, including those on 6 January, amounted to engaging in insurrection. Section 3 of the 14th amendment says that anyone who takes an oath to the United States and then subsequently engages in “insurrection or rebellion against the same” is disqualified from holding public office.
U.S. historical counties
Another video showing the growth of counties in the United States.
Lucky us!
Lucky us!
Monday, September 11, 2023
Fiscal Federalism
The three levels of government are interconnected fiscally. That is, money flows from one the other. This generally means that it flows from the top to bottom, but it does so in many different ways depending on the specific item of spending.
This is what "fiscal federalism" really refers to.
One of the things I'm hoping to make sensible over the semester is how this flow of money works.
Here are other definitions of the term.
- Wikipedia: Fiscal Federalism.
fiscal federalism is concerned with "understanding which functions and instruments are best centralized and which are best placed in the sphere of decentralized levels of government" (Oates, 1999). In other words, it is the study of how competencies (expenditure side) and fiscal instruments (revenue side) are allocated across different (vertical) layers of the administration. An important part of its subject matter is the system of transfer payments or grants by which a central government shares its revenues with lower levels of government. Federal governments use this power to enforce national rules and standards.
- Congressional Research Service: Fiscal Federalism: Theory and Practice.
The field of fiscal federalism studies how to divide responsibilities (including finances) among federal, state, and local governments to improve economic efficiency and achieve various public policy objectives. Determining the optimal division of responsibilities is difficult because of varying subjective views about what the role of government should be. As a result, fiscal federalism research generally renders no judgment on the proper level of total government intervention or what types of services governments should provide. The research focuses instead on how responsibilities are assigned across multiple layers of government once policymakers have decided to implement a given policy, and what trade-offs may be involved in administering it.
National
- Enumerated Powers
- - Income Taxes
- - Payroll Taxes
- - Corporate Income Taxes
- - Tariffs
State
- Reserved Powers
- - Federal Funds
- - Sales Taxes
- - Fines
- - Fees
Local
- Implementation of Reserved Powers
- Basic Services and Infrastructure
- - Property Taxes
- - Sales
How to Fund the Deficit: Sell Treasury Bonds
- Fiscal Data: What is the national deficit?
- U.S. Treasury: Bonds and Securities.
This ain't too bad - but it doesn't break down spending into discretionary and non discretionary
For our look at budgets and fiscal federalism.
A good chunk of this money ends up in the Texas Treasury.
Government Revenue
Let's look at this in the abstract.
To understand specific spending, the most accurate place to look is the appropriations bills on the national and state levels. For specific information on local spending, look at their respective budgets. More on all that later.
- Wikipedia:
Government revenue or national revenue is money received by a government from taxes and non-tax sources to enable it to undertake public expenditure. Government revenue as well as government spending are components of the government budget and important tools of the government's fiscal policy. The collection of revenue is the most basic task of a government, as revenue is necessary for the operation of government, provision of the common good (through the social contract in order to fulfill the public interest) and enforcement of its laws; this necessity of revenue was a major factor in the development of the modern bureaucratic state.
Government revenue is distinct from government debt and money creation, which both serve as temporary measures of increasing a government's money supply without increasing its revenue.
Tax Revenue:
A simple (too simple) breakdown of tax collections within Texas
national - income
state - sales
local - property
- Tax Revenue: the income that is collected by governments through taxation. Taxation is the primary source of government revenue. Revenue may be extracted from sources such as individuals, public enterprises, trade, royalties on natural resources and/or foreign aid.
- Types of Taxes collected by the Unites States government:
- personal income
- corporate income
- payroll: social security
- payroll: health insurance
- excise taxes
- - From the Treasury Department: How much revenue has the U.S. government collected this year?
Most of the revenue the U.S. government collects comes from contributions from individual taxpayers, small businesses, and corporations through taxes. Additional sources of tax revenue consist of excise tax, estate tax, and other taxes and fees. So far in FY 2023, individual income taxes have accounted for 50% of total revenue while Social Security and Medicare taxes made up another 37%. (Government revenue also comes from payments to federal agencies like the U.S. Department of the Interior. Have you visited a national park recently? Did you know your national park entry is included in government revenue? Other agencies generate revenue from leases, the sale of natural resources, and various usage and licensing fees.)
- Types of Taxes collected by the Texas government:
- sales taxes
- the franchise tax (the state’s primary business tax)
- motor vehicle-related taxes
- taxes on crude oil and natural gas production
- - From the Texas Comptroller:
- - - MONTHLY STATE REVENUE WATCH.
- - - A History of State Taxes and Fees in Texas, 1972 to 2022.
- - - A Field Guide to the Taxes of Texas.
- - - Texas Comptroller: Appropriated Funds/General Revenue Accounts.
- Types of Taxes collected by local governments in Texas:
- - From the Texas Municipal League: REVENUE MANUAL FOR TEXAS CITIES.
- - The Texas County Government Revenue Stream.
- - TEXAS PUBLIC EDUCATION FUNDING SOURCES.
Government Spending
Wikipedia:
Government spending or expenditure includes all government consumption, investment, and transfer payments. In national income accounting, the acquisition by governments of goods and services for current use, to directly satisfy the individual or collective needs of the community, is classed as government final consumption expenditure. Government acquisition of goods and services intended to create future benefits, such as infrastructure investment or research spending, is classed as government investment (government gross capital formation). These two types of government spending, on final consumption and on gross capital formation, together constitute one of the major components of gross domestic product.
Government spending can be financed by government borrowing, taxes, custom duties, the sale or lease of natural resources, and various fees like national park entry fees or licensing fees. When Governments choose to borrow money, they have to pay interest on the money borrowed. Changes in government spending is a major component of fiscal policy used to stabilize the macroeconomic business cycle.
Areas of spending:
- National Government
- - Discretionary:
- - - Defense
- - - Transportation
- - - Etc...
- - Non Discretionary
- - - Social Security
- - - Health care
- - - Unemployment Insurance
- - Texas Government
- - - Education
- - - Health and Human Services
- - - Business and Economic Development
- - - Public Safety and Criminal Justice
- - - Natural Resources
- - - Fiscal Size-Up: Areas of Spending / State Agencies.
From KHOU 11: This Texas town has about 250 people. It has 50 sworn police officers.
A look at non-tax local revenue.
- Click here for the story.
There’s not much to Coffee City, Texas. Two liquor stores, a couple of dollar stores, a pizza joint and a motel. But this town, which is three hours north of Houston, has quite a reputation among those who drive through.
“A lot of officers policing a very small number of people,” motorist Jen Hendricks said.
“They run back and forth, back and forth,” Bill Knous said.
“They’re everywhere, literally everywhere,” Madison, who didn’t provide her last name, said.
The city limit sign on the side of State Highway 155 reads “POP 249.” In a town of barely 250 residents, there are 50 full-time and reserve officers in the department. That is five times the number of cops than any town its size, according to Texas Commission on Law Enforcement records.
From Wikipedia: Coffee City, Texas.
Do we have a Right to Travel?
- Texas highways are the next anti-abortion target. One town is resisting.
- https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2023/09/01/texas-abortion-highways/
- Dalen v The State.
- Constitution Annotated: Interstate Travel as a Fundamental Right.
- LII: Durational Residency Requirements.
The doctrine of the “right to travel” actually encompasses three separate rights, of which two have been notable for the uncertainty of their textual support. The first is the right of a citizen to move freely between states, a right venerable for its longevity, but still lacking a clear doctrinal basis.1 The second, expressly addressed by the first sentence of Article IV, provides a citizen of one state who is temporarily visiting another state the “Privileges and Immunities” of a citizen of the latter state.2 The third is the right of a new arrival to a state, who establishes citizenship in that state, to enjoy the same rights and benefits as other state citizens. This right is most often invoked in challenges to durational residency requirements, which require that persons reside in a state for a specified period of time before taking advantage of the benefits of that state’s citizenship.
Sunday, September 10, 2023
Religious Liberty: Free Exercise Clause
The Free Exercise Clause:
Congress shall make no law . . . prohibiting the free exercise [of religion]
Explanations:
- Legal Information Institute:
The Free Exercise Clause reserves the right of American citizens to accept any religious belief and engage in religious rituals. Free-exercise clauses of state constitutions which protected religious “[o]pinion, expression of opinion, and practice were all expressly protected” by the Free Exercise Clause.[1] The Clause protects not just religious beliefs but actions made on behalf of those beliefs. More importantly, the wording of state constitutions suggest that “free exercise envisions religiously compelled exemptions from at least some generally applicable laws.”[2] The Free Exercise Clause not only protects religious belief and expression; it also seems to allow for violation of laws, as long as that violation is made for religious reasons. In the terms of economic theory, the Free Exercise Clause promotes a free religious market by precluding taxation of religious activities by minority sects.
- Oyez: Free Exercise Cases.
Landmark Cases:
- Church of Lukumi Babalu Aye, Inc. v. City of Hialeah.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employment_Division_v._Smith
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_Spaghetti_Monster
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_exemption
Saturday, September 9, 2023
Ken Paxton's lawyer speaks on 'burden of proof' necessary in impeachment...
These hearings are absolute gold.
Pat attention to how they deal with standards of proof, and to whom they apply.
Pat attention to how they deal with standards of proof, and to whom they apply.
Friday, September 8, 2023
https://www.icc-ccs.org/piracy-reporting-centre/live-piracy-map
https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2022/econ/gus/2022-governments.html
https://www.gq.com/story/teezo-touchdown-interview-moncler
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iowa_Colony,_Texas
https://www.texastribune.org/2023/09/08/texas-heat-city-water-pipes-damage/
https://www.texastribune.org/2023/09/01/ken-paxton-impeachment-articles/
From Investopedia: History of Corporations in the U.S: First Corporations to Present
From the beginning, the U.S. Constitution has been about the enabling and promotion of business. Here's some history.
- Click here for the article.
The first American corporations were developed in the 1790s, almost instantly becoming key institutions in the young nation's economy. Although corporations existed in Europe in the early 19th century—particularly in Great Britain and the Netherlands—no country took to corporate development like the United States.
Small banking corporations existed in the first years after the American Revolution. However, most historians note that the first important industrial corporation was the Boston Manufacturing Co. in 1813. Its business model was imported from Great Britain, where textile corporations helped spark the first Industrial Revolution some three decades earlier.
Corporations could raise capital from diverse sources, providing an important mechanism for savers and producers alike. Voting rights were much less protected in the early years through processes of "graduating" certain shareholders, but corporations still embodied a new type of investment.
For more on the Boston Manufacturing Company, click here.
Wednesday, September 6, 2023
From Ballotpedia: Impeachments in Texas
There were two prior to the current impeachment of Attorney General Paxton.
- Click here for the story.
In Texas, three officials have been impeached and two were removed from office after impeachment—Governor James Ferguson (D) in 1917 and State District Judge O.P. Carillo in 1975. Ferguson was indicted on charges including embezzlement while Carillo spent three years in jail following his impeachment.[5] The Texas House of Representatives voted to impeach state Attorney General Ken Paxton (R) on May 27, 2023.[6] Paxton's impeachment trial will be conducted by the state Senate beginning no later than August 28, 2023.[7]
In 2013 and 2014, the legislature conducted an investigation into the actions of Regent Wallace Hall. The House Select Committee on Transparency in State Agency Operations considered "whether he failed to disclose key information on his application to be a regent; whether he improperly handled sensitive student information; and whether he exceeded his authority in his private investigations of UT-Austin.[8] On August 11, 2014, that committee voted 6-1 to censure, rather than impeach, Hall.
__________
Marriage Licenses in Texas
https://guides.sll.texas.gov/marriage-in-texas/marriage-licenses
https://www.dshs.texas.gov/sites/default/files/vs/partners/docs/forms/MarriageApplication-VS180.pdf
https://www2.texasattorneygeneral.gov/files/cs/8marriage.pdf
https://www.co.mclennan.tx.us/175/Marriage-License#:~:text=Both%20applicants%20must%20appear%20in,is%20issued%20before%20being%20married.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McLennan_County,_Texas
Ken Paxton's Impeachment
I'll add info to this as it progresses.
Texas Tribune: Paxton Impeachment.
5/25/23: Articles of impeachment issued.
- Texas House committee issues 20 articles of impeachment against Attorney General Ken Paxton.
5/27/23: Paxton impeached.
- Texas AG Ken Paxton impeached, suspended from duties; will face Senate trial.
6/20/23
- In the Ken Paxton Impeachment Trial, GOP Megadonors Are Free to Tamper With the Jury.
9/1/23: Who's who
- Who’s who in the Ken Paxton impeachment trial, from key participants to potential witnesses.
9/5/23: The trial begins.
- Ken Paxton impeachment trial begins with sniping: “Slow creep of corruption” vs. “nothing of significance”
9/6/23: Jeff Mateer testifies.
- Ken Paxton’s top deputy, the first impeachment witness, describes an attorney general out of control.
9/8/23: Former Texas Ranger David Maxwell testifies.
- AG’s former top cop says he warned Paxton about “criminal” Nate Paul.
9/13/23: Former Paxton Chief of Staff testifies.
- Whistleblower says political donor acted like he was the “real boss” of AG’s office.
9/13/23: The prosecution rests.
- The House has rested its case against Ken Paxton after a chaotic day for the prosecution.
9/14/23: The defense rests.
- Ken Paxton impeachment defense rests after calling 4 witnesses.
Tuesday, September 5, 2023
Spanish Texas
- TSHA: Spanish Texas.
Spanish Texas, situated on the border of Spain’s vast North American empire, encompassed only a small portion of what is now the Lone Star State. The province lay above the Nueces River to the east of the Medina River headwaters and extended into Louisiana. Over time, Texas was a part of four provinces in the Viceroyalty of New Spain (Colonial Mexico). The El Paso area was under the jurisdiction of New Mexico, the missions founded near La Junta de los Ríos were under Nueva Vizcaya, the coastal region from the Nueces River to the Rio Grande and thence upstream to Laredo was under Nuevo Santander after 1749, and Texas was initially under joint jurisdiction with the province of Coahuila.
Slightly more than three centuries elapsed between the time the Texas shoreline was first viewed by a Spaniard on an unknown date in 1519 and July 21, 1821, when the flag of Castile and León was lowered for the last time at San Antonio.
- TSHA: Spanish Law.
As an outpost of the kingdom of New Spain, the province of Texas shared with Mexico the basic law of the parent sovereign, that of Castile. This law went essentially unchanged during the tumultuous fifteen years of Mexican Texas (1821–36), but after the Texas Revolution, the Republic of Texas adopted the law of England in preference to that of Spain. Three areas of law were excepted from the wholesale adoption of English law in Texas: certain procedural rules affecting trials, the law affecting land titles and certain water rights, and a large body of rules affecting family relationships. In spite of severe antagonism to Spanish and Mexican government, the predominantly Anglo-American colonists of Texas found in the prevailing legal system a number of elements better adapted to their conditions than Anglo-American legal institutions under which they had been reared in the United States.
- Wikipedia: Spanish Texas.
Spanish Texas was one of the interior provinces of the colonial Viceroyalty of New Spain from 1519 until 1821. Spain claimed ownership of the region in 1519. Slave raids by Spaniards into what became Texas began in the 16th century and created an atmosphere of antagonism with Native Americans (Indians) which would cause endless difficulties for the Spanish in the future. Spain did not attempt to establish a permanent presence until after France established the colony of Fort Saint Louis in 1685. In 1688, the French colony failed due to internal dissention and attacks by the Karankawa Indians. In 1690, responding to fear of French encroachment, Spanish explorer Alonso de León escorted several Catholic missionaries to east Texas, where they established the first mission in Texas. That attempt to establish a Spanish colony failed due to the hostility of the Caddo Indians. . . .
- Wikipedia: Spanish America.
Spanish America refers to the Spanish territories in the Americas during the Spanish colonization of the Americas. The term "Spanish America" was specifically used during the territories' imperial era between 15th and 19th centuries. To the end of its imperial rule, Spain called its overseas possessions in the Americas and the Philippines "The Indies", an enduring remnant of Columbus's notion that he had reached Asia by sailing west. When these territories reach a high level of importance, the crown established the Council of the Indies in 1524, following the conquest of the Aztec Empire, asserting permanent royal control over its possessions. Regions with dense indigenous populations and sources of mineral wealth attracting Spanish settlers became colonial centers, while those without such resources were peripheral to crown interest. Once regions incorporated into the empire and their importance assessed, overseas possessions came under stronger or weaker crown control. . . .