- Fully describe the function and organization of the Texas Bond Review Board.
- Website: The Texas Bond Review Board.
- Fully describe the function and organization of the Cancer Prevention and Research Institute of Texas.
- Website: The Cancer Prevention and Research Institute of Texas.
- Fully describe the function and organization of the Dementia Prevention and Research Institute of Texas.
- Website: the Dementia Prevention and Research Institute of Texas.
- Is there a relationship between the Cancer Prevention and Research Institute of Texas and the Texas Workforce Commission?
- What political forces suppported the creation of the Dementia Prevention and Research Institute of Texas?
Thursday, April 23, 2026
Wednesday, April 22, 2026
From dezeen: Five Texas cities "catalyzing" urban development with convention centres
A look at one aspect of economic development in Texas' largest cities.
- Click here for the article.
Nearly $9 billion of convention centre design and construction is currently underway in Texas's five biggest cities. Local writer Kate Mazade asks experts about the phenomenon and dives into the plans for each city.
From tactical renovations and expansions to complete demolitions and rebuilds, the Lone Star State is exploring how once-hermetic buildings that disrupt the urban environment can look outward to create connections through it.
Michael Lockwood, senior principal at Populous, who is overseeing convention centre projects in Dallas, Houston and San Antonio, called the resurgence of convention centre construction in Texas a "perfect storm of conditions" driven by changing state laws and a comeback for in-person business meetings.
Modifications of state legislation have allowed municipalities to tap into additional funding for renovations, expansions and rebuilds for convention centres.
In 2023, Texas Senate Bill 1057 paved the way for municipalities to allocate hotel occupancy tax revenue from a three-mile radius surrounding convention centres for maintenance and new building projects on those sites.
Teeming with business once again, Texas cities are looking for updated convention centre facilities that cater to programmatic flexibility and urban porosity.
- History for 88(R) SB 1057 by Whitmire.
- Houston First Corporation.
- What is Houston First Corporation?
- Click here for the article.
Nearly $9 billion of convention centre design and construction is currently underway in Texas's five biggest cities. Local writer Kate Mazade asks experts about the phenomenon and dives into the plans for each city.
From tactical renovations and expansions to complete demolitions and rebuilds, the Lone Star State is exploring how once-hermetic buildings that disrupt the urban environment can look outward to create connections through it.
Michael Lockwood, senior principal at Populous, who is overseeing convention centre projects in Dallas, Houston and San Antonio, called the resurgence of convention centre construction in Texas a "perfect storm of conditions" driven by changing state laws and a comeback for in-person business meetings.
Modifications of state legislation have allowed municipalities to tap into additional funding for renovations, expansions and rebuilds for convention centres.
In 2023, Texas Senate Bill 1057 paved the way for municipalities to allocate hotel occupancy tax revenue from a three-mile radius surrounding convention centres for maintenance and new building projects on those sites.
Teeming with business once again, Texas cities are looking for updated convention centre facilities that cater to programmatic flexibility and urban porosity.
- History for 88(R) SB 1057 by Whitmire.
- Houston First Corporation.
- What is Houston First Corporation?
Tuesday, April 21, 2026
Dear ChatGPT:
- What is the Port of Houston Authority?
- What is the Harris County Sports Authority?
The Harris County–Houston Sports Authority (HCHSA) is a government-created agency that manages major sports facilities and promotes the Houston area as a destination for big sporting events.
- What is a Seperate Government Authority?
A “separate government authority” (often called a public authority, special district, or quasi-governmental entity) is an organization created by law to carry out a specific public function outside the regular structure of state or local government—but still exercising government-like powers.
From the New York Times: Supreme Court Appears to Back F.C.C. Fines Against Cellphone Carriers
The 7th Amendment is in the news.
- Click here for the article.
The Supreme Court on Tuesday grappled with a challenge to one of the primary ways the Federal Communications Commission enforces rules that protect consumer privacy, combat robocalls and regulate broadcasting.
In recent years, the agency has imposed millions of dollars in penalties against two major cellphone carriers, Verizon and AT&T, to punish the companies for what it says is their failure to protect customer data. The companies contend that those fines have violated their rights because they were assessed without the companies facing a trial in front of a jury.
After more than an hour of arguments on Tuesday, a majority of justices seemed inclined to side with the Trump administration in finding that the companies’ Seventh Amendment rights were not violated because while the F.C.C. imposed the fines, the companies had an ability to challenge them by refusing to pay and then proceeding to a jury trial in federal court.
If a company refuses to pay, the Justice Department can then file a lawsuit against it, which would then be considered by a jury.
From the New York Times: Federal Appeals Court Upholds Texas Ten Commandments Law
A federal appeals court on Tuesday narrowly upheld a Texas law that requires public schools to display posters of the Ten Commandments in classrooms.
By 9-to-8, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit ruled that the law does not violate the separation of church and state, reversing two lower court decisions. The court also ruled the measure does not restrict parents’ right to direct their children’s religious upbringing.
“Students are neither catechized on the Commandments nor taught to adopt them,” the ruling said. “Nor are teachers commanded to proselytize students who ask about the displays or contradict students who disagree with them.”
Since Gov. Greg Abbott, a Republican, signed a law in 2025 mandating the religious displays, families of various faith backgrounds have challenged it, arguing that the law amounted to state endorsement of religion. The law was passed amid a broader conservative push to infuse Christianity into public schools, and several other Republican-led states have passed similar laws.
The organizations representing the 15 Texas families who filed the lawsuit said in a statement that they were disappointed in the decision and planned to ask the Supreme Court to reverse it.
The Texas law mandates the displays in a “conspicuous” location in each classroom on a typeface visible from anywhere in the room. The posters must be at least 16 inches wide and 20 inches tall and must include the text of a particular version of the Ten Commandments. Schools are not required to purchase the posters, but they must accept donations of them.
In separate rulings last year, two federal judges in the state sided with the challengers, saying the law likely violated the First Amendment. Those rulings effectively blocked the law’s enforcement across 24 Texas school districts, including in Houston and Austin.
But the attorney general, Ken Paxton, had encouraged school districts that had not been blocked to hang the Ten Commandments posters, threatening legal action against those that did not comply.
- Click here for the case.
- Fifth Circuit OKs Texas Ten Commandments Classroom Law.
- The Ten Commandments return to federal court.
- From the TLO: History for 89(R) SB 10 by King.
- What religions were developed in the United States?
From the New York Times: Fed Chair Nominee Asserts at Hearing He Won’t Do Trump’s Bidding
Kevin M. Warsh, President Trump’s nominee for Federal Reserve chair, told senators at his confirmation hearing that the president had not asked him for any commitments. Democrats pressed him on his independence and details of his financial assets.
Kevin M. Warsh, President Trump’s pick to lead the Federal Reserve, asserted repeatedly at a combative confirmation hearing on Tuesday that he would not cut interest rates simply because President Trump wanted him to, pledging to be “strictly independent” if confirmed for one of the world’s most powerful economic positions.
In sometimes testy exchanges before the Senate Banking Committee, Mr. Warsh, 56, sought to dispel doubts around his credibility, saying Mr. Trump had “never asked me to predetermine, commit, fix, decide on any interest rate decision in any of our discussions, nor would I ever agree to do so.”
For Warsh, the next immediate step is a set of written questions from lawmakers, for which responses appear to be due by Thursday. The quick turnaround suggests that the Senate Banking Committee is trying to move quickly to hold a vote on his nomination. If the committee approves his nomination, he will then need to be considered by the full Senate.
Regardless of the timeline, the road ahead has not changed much for Warsh. At least one Republican on the committee, Mr. Tillis, wants to see the Justice Department investigation into Powell closed before he supports any Fed nominee. And the Trump administration, so far, has shown no sign of backing down.
For more:
- What is a central bank?
- History of the Federal Reserve.
- Describe the backgrounds of the people who have been Chair of the Federal Reserve.
- Monetary policy of the United States.
- Describe the monetary policy of the United States.
- Should the Federal Reserve be independent of the president? If so, how independent?
- What influence does the Senate Banking Committee have over the Federal Reserve?
Kevin M. Warsh, President Trump’s pick to lead the Federal Reserve, asserted repeatedly at a combative confirmation hearing on Tuesday that he would not cut interest rates simply because President Trump wanted him to, pledging to be “strictly independent” if confirmed for one of the world’s most powerful economic positions.
In sometimes testy exchanges before the Senate Banking Committee, Mr. Warsh, 56, sought to dispel doubts around his credibility, saying Mr. Trump had “never asked me to predetermine, commit, fix, decide on any interest rate decision in any of our discussions, nor would I ever agree to do so.”
For Warsh, the next immediate step is a set of written questions from lawmakers, for which responses appear to be due by Thursday. The quick turnaround suggests that the Senate Banking Committee is trying to move quickly to hold a vote on his nomination. If the committee approves his nomination, he will then need to be considered by the full Senate.
Regardless of the timeline, the road ahead has not changed much for Warsh. At least one Republican on the committee, Mr. Tillis, wants to see the Justice Department investigation into Powell closed before he supports any Fed nominee. And the Trump administration, so far, has shown no sign of backing down.
For more:
- What is a central bank?
- History of the Federal Reserve.
- Describe the backgrounds of the people who have been Chair of the Federal Reserve.
- Monetary policy of the United States.
- Describe the monetary policy of the United States.
- Should the Federal Reserve be independent of the president? If so, how independent?
- What influence does the Senate Banking Committee have over the Federal Reserve?
Monday, April 20, 2026
On this Day in History - 4.20.1653: Oliver Cromwell dissolves England's Rump Parliament.
An example of the military preventing members from attending a legislative session.
It helped lead to Charles II's execution.
From Wikipedia: Rump Parliament.
Random Items - 4.20.2026
- The Inside Story of Five Days That Remade the Supreme Court.
- TXDOT 99 Grand Parkway Project.
- SH 99 Grand Parkway Segment B-1 Design-Build - request for qualifications (RFQ).
- Map.
- Does Pearland, Texas have a bus system?
- Low-producing oil wells linger for years, causing headaches for Texas landowners.
- Cryptocurrency industry is on track to surpass 2024 spending on Texas midterm races.
- Stand With Crypto.
- Computer numerical control.
Sunday, April 19, 2026
Regarding Transportation Policy
- What are the controversies over transportation policy in the United States?
- What different functions are served by the national, state, and local governments regarding transportation policy?
- Outline statewide transportation policy in Texas.
- Detail the transportation funding stream between the national, state, and local governments?
Regarding Business and Economic Development Policy in Texas
- What controversies surround Business and Economic policy in Texas?
- What are the major agencies involved in business and economic developement in Texas?
- Describe the Texas Department of Housing and Community Affairs.
- Describe the Texas Workforce Commission.
- Describe the relationship between Alvin Community College and the Texas Workforce Commission.
From the Washington Post: Students are speeding through their online degrees in weeks, alarming educators
It takes most college students at least four years to earn a bachelor’s degree. Christie Williams finished in three months.
The North Carolina human resources executive spent two months racking up credits through web tutorials after work in 2024, then raced through 11 online classes at the University of Maine at Presque Isle in four weeks. Later that year, she went back to earn her master’s — in just five weeks. The two degrees cost a total of just over $4,000.
Since then, she has coached a thousand other students on how to speed through the state college, shaving off years and thousands of dollars from the usual cost of a degree.
“Why wouldn’t you do that?” Williams asked. “It’s kind of a no-brainer if you know about it.”
Many U.S. schools have been experimenting with ways to speed up traditional college programs to reduce the burgeoning cost and help students move into the workforce faster. Some offer three-year bachelor’s programs, reducing the number of credits needed for a diploma by one quarter. Many more allow students to enroll in college classes while still in high school.
But the breakneck pace of the fastest online programs concerns some academics, who say there is a big difference in what students can learn in weeks or months compared with three or more years.
Ask ChatGPT: Which lobbyists write the most legislation?
- Click here for the full response.
Short answer: no lobbyist literally “writes the most legislation” in a formal sense—only legislators introduce bills—but in practice, a relatively small set of large organizations, trade associations, and elite law/lobbying firms are responsible for drafting a significant share of bill language that lawmakers use.
Here’s how it actually works and who tends to dominate:
1) The biggest de facto bill drafters: model-legislation networks
These groups don’t pass laws—but they write templates that get reused across states.
- American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC)
- National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL)
- Council of State Governments
These organizations matter because: One draft → copied into dozens of states
This creates the highest-volume “legislation writing” effect
2) Industry trade associations (major hidden drafters)
These groups often provide fully written bill text to legislators.
- American Petroleum Institute (energy regulation, environmental rules)
- Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (drug pricing, liability, patents)
- National Association of Realtors (property tax, zoning, mortgage policy)
- National Rifle Association (firearms law)
What they do:Draft bill language aligned with industry goals
Provide it directly to friendly legislators
Supply talking points + amendments + regulatory text
In Texas specifically:
Energy firms (especially tied to the Texas Railroad Commission orbit)
Real estate and development groups
Business associations like
Texas Association of Business are frequent drafters or co-drafters of legislation
3) Large law firms and contract lobbyists
These actors often do the technical drafting work.
Typical players:
- Major DC firms (e.g., Akin Gump, Brownstein Hyatt)
- State-level power firms (in Texas: firms connected to Austin lobbying networks)
What they contribute:
- Highly detailed statutory language
- Regulatory compliance frameworks
Amendments tailored to survive legal scrutiny
These are often the closest thing to “professional bill writers”
4) Corporations (especially in tech, finance, and energy)
Large firms increasingly draft legislation directly, especially in complex areas.
Examples:
Tech companies → privacy, AI, platform regulation
Banks → financial regulation language
Energy firms → grid, environmental, and tax provisions
They often: Draft internally
Route text through trade associations or lobbyists
Provide it to legislators nearly “ready to file”
5) Advocacy and nonprofit groups
Not just corporations—advocacy groups also draft heavily:American Civil Liberties Union (civil liberties, voting rights)
- Heritage Foundation (policy templates)
- Center for American Progress (progressive policy drafting)
These groups:
- Write ideological model legislation
- Feed it to aligned lawmakers
For UH Test 3
A few suggestions:
- Presidential Removal Powers.
- Myers v. United States.
- The Major Questions Doctrine.
- Humphrey's Executor v. United States.
- Seila Law LLC v. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau.
- Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act
- Federal Reserve Act
- Administrative Procedure Act
- Regulating financial markets
- Presidential Removal Powers.
- Myers v. United States.
- The Major Questions Doctrine.
- Humphrey's Executor v. United States.
- Seila Law LLC v. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau.
- Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act
- Federal Reserve Act
- Administrative Procedure Act
- Regulating financial markets
From the Houston Chronicle: Texas school takeover tracker
A 2015 law expanded the Texas Education Agency’s authority, and since then, the agency has taken over multiple school districts for poor academic performance.
The TEA announced it would take over four more this year, doubling the number of districts currently under a state takeover to eight. School districts face potential state intervention if one of their schools receives five straight failing ratings in the state’s annual A-F system.
In a state takeover, as with Houston ISD, the TEA appoints a new superintendent and a board of managers, who often implement reforms to curriculum, teaching and programs to improve student performance. Here’s which school districts are currently under state-appointed leadership or at risk of a takeover in the future.
Dear ChatGPT: What 2015 law expanded the Texas Education Agency’s authority over ISDs?
- HB 1842 (84R)
The TEA announced it would take over four more this year, doubling the number of districts currently under a state takeover to eight. School districts face potential state intervention if one of their schools receives five straight failing ratings in the state’s annual A-F system.
In a state takeover, as with Houston ISD, the TEA appoints a new superintendent and a board of managers, who often implement reforms to curriculum, teaching and programs to improve student performance. Here’s which school districts are currently under state-appointed leadership or at risk of a takeover in the future.
Dear ChatGPT: What 2015 law expanded the Texas Education Agency’s authority over ISDs?
- HB 1842 (84R)
Thursday, April 16, 2026
From the Texas Tribune: Texas to launch a statewide food truck permit on July 1
Eloisa Schessler and her husband started Eloisa’s Kitchen Food Truck in Dallas to help their daughter. Their daughter had suffered a head injury, and had become a shell of her former self. They worked diligently to create a small business where their daughter not only serves as the sous chef, but she also is responsible for the entire creative design of the truck. Slowly, they started to see their daughter revert back to her former self.
But government red-tape is preventing her food truck and others from growing. The family wants to travel to other cities to serve their food, but each city requires them to apply for a permit, which is not only very costly, but requires the family to take the day off of work to do another city’s inspection.
. . . But House Bill 2844, which passed last year and goes into effect July 1, could relieve the Schessler family and the statewide food truck industry from some of the financial pressure.
The new state law outlines that the Department of State Health Services (DSHS) will create a statewide operating permit that will apply to any food truck in Texas. Currently, food truck owners must pay each city’s permitting fees to operate there, which can cost several hundreds of dollars per jurisdiction, even though inspection requirements are largely the same across cities and counties. Consequently, food truck owners have said they feel discouraged from traveling to other places to sell their food, suppressing their business growth.
. . . Some cities oppose the new statewide license because without their authority, both cities and counties fear they may lose control of how their mobile food trucks operate in their locations. Local governmental entities control where and when the food trucks operate in their jurisdiction, but they won’t be able to collect permit and inspection fees anymore.
- House Bill 2844
Regarding U.S. Defense Policy
- Describe the defense policy of the United States.
- Describe the range of agencies involved in U.S. defense policy.
- Describe the stages in the development of U.S. defense policy and in the institutions that implement it.
- Describe the process for funding U.S. defense.
- Describe the growth in spending on defense in the U.S.
Regarding State Health and Human Services Policy in Texas
- What controversies surround Health and Human Services policy in Texas?
- Describe the administrative structure of HHS in Texas.
- Describe the administrative structure of all health and welfare services in Texas.
- Detail how health and human services in Texas are funded. Include intergovernmental tranfers.
- How does the public and private sector interact in health and human services policy?
Regarding State Education Policy
- What controversies surround K-12 education in Texas?
- Describe the content of Senate Bill 2 (SB 2) passed inthe 89th session of the Texas Legislature.
- Outline the strategy used to pass private school vouchers in Texas.
- Detail how public schools in Texas are funded. Include intergovernmental tranfers.
- What impact does the U.S. Department of Education play in state education policy?
Wednesday, April 15, 2026
New Items - 4.15.2026
- Texas’ GOP attorney general candidates want to challenge decades-old Supreme Court rulings.
- Judge rules to temporarily block Texas’ smokeable hemp ban.
- Texas Tech law student sues to block discipline related to Charlie Kirk comments.
- Judge temporarily reinstates women, minority-owned businesses into Texas HUB program.
- Houston to consider repealing ordinance limiting its ICE cooperation amid state funding threat, investigation.
- Tesla’s Gigafactory water use surges in Austin as new chip plant looms.
- Judge rules to temporarily block Texas’ smokeable hemp ban.
- Texas Tech law student sues to block discipline related to Charlie Kirk comments.
- Judge temporarily reinstates women, minority-owned businesses into Texas HUB program.
- Houston to consider repealing ordinance limiting its ICE cooperation amid state funding threat, investigation.
- Tesla’s Gigafactory water use surges in Austin as new chip plant looms.
Monday, April 13, 2026
Regarding National Policy on Commerce, Justice, and Science
House Subcommittee on Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies.
Senate Subcommittee on Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies.- Outline the key disputes over commerce policy on the national level.
- Outline the key disputes over justice policy on the national level.
- Outline the key disputes over science policy on the national level.
Regarding National Agriculture Policy
House Subcommittee on Agriculture, Rural Development, Food and Drug Administration, and Related Agencies.
Senate Subcommittee on Agriculture, Rural Development, Food and Drug Administration, and Related Agencies.
Senate Subcommittee on Agriculture, Rural Development, Food and Drug Administration, and Related Agencies.
- Outline the key disputes over agriculture policy on the national level.
Random Items - 4.13.26
- Cognitive Warfare.
- What percentage of homeowners in Pearland live in a HOA?
- What is six degree of freedom control?
- What is the constitutional authority for NASA?
- Detail upcoming highway projected in Texas.
Sunday, April 12, 2026
Introducing RealManage
In case you need help running a Home Owners Association.
- Click here for it.
Maximize The Value of Your Community With Our Top-rated HOA Management Services
RealManage is a tech-enabled service delivery company that partners with community association boards to enhance the value of their community by improving communications with the board and residents, providing transparency in financials and community management, and driving operational efficiencies, so that board members can focus on realizing their full vision for the community.
By leveraging our comprehensive software platform, paired with our industry-best community managers and service delivery support teams, we increase community value and improve the resident experience. In essence, we help community association boards to run their communities like a business while acting like a neighbor.
__________
RealManage, founded in 2004, has grown over the past two decades into one of the nation’s leading community association management companies. The company’s journey is marked by strategic acquisitions, technological innovation, and a steadfast commitment to enhancing community value.
Timeline of Key Milestones:
2002: The concept for RealManage was developed, aiming to transform the community association management industry.
2004: RealManage officially launched with the acquisition of a successful property management company in Austin, Texas, establishing its initial presence in the industry.
2015: The company introduced GrandManors, a division dedicated to serving highly amenitized and lifestyle-focused communities, offering on-site staff and exclusive lifestyle services.
2017: RealManage expanded into Illinois by acquiring Rowell, Inc., a company with a rich history in managing condo and homeowner associations since 1973.
2019: The company entered the Southeast Florida market, marking its continued strategic investment in the region.
2022: RealManage made significant acquisitions, including Premier Community Management and Vision Community Management in Arizona, and Hammersmith® in Colorado, enhancing its national footprint and service capabilities.
2023: The company further expanded by acquiring Brown Community Management in Arizona and Walters Management in Southern California, reinforcing its position as a leading community management firm.
- Click here for it.
Maximize The Value of Your Community With Our Top-rated HOA Management Services
RealManage is a tech-enabled service delivery company that partners with community association boards to enhance the value of their community by improving communications with the board and residents, providing transparency in financials and community management, and driving operational efficiencies, so that board members can focus on realizing their full vision for the community.
By leveraging our comprehensive software platform, paired with our industry-best community managers and service delivery support teams, we increase community value and improve the resident experience. In essence, we help community association boards to run their communities like a business while acting like a neighbor.
__________
RealManage, founded in 2004, has grown over the past two decades into one of the nation’s leading community association management companies. The company’s journey is marked by strategic acquisitions, technological innovation, and a steadfast commitment to enhancing community value.
Timeline of Key Milestones:
2002: The concept for RealManage was developed, aiming to transform the community association management industry.
2004: RealManage officially launched with the acquisition of a successful property management company in Austin, Texas, establishing its initial presence in the industry.
2015: The company introduced GrandManors, a division dedicated to serving highly amenitized and lifestyle-focused communities, offering on-site staff and exclusive lifestyle services.
2017: RealManage expanded into Illinois by acquiring Rowell, Inc., a company with a rich history in managing condo and homeowner associations since 1973.
2019: The company entered the Southeast Florida market, marking its continued strategic investment in the region.
2022: RealManage made significant acquisitions, including Premier Community Management and Vision Community Management in Arizona, and Hammersmith® in Colorado, enhancing its national footprint and service capabilities.
2023: The company further expanded by acquiring Brown Community Management in Arizona and Walters Management in Southern California, reinforcing its position as a leading community management firm.
From the Institute for the Study of War: Iran Update Special Report, April 11, 2026
- Click here for the report.
Key Takeaways
1 - Iran and the United States have fundamentally different interpretations of the ongoing negotiations, which will generate friction. Iran seeks an all-encompassing agreement that will end the threat of war with the United States, while the United States seeks a much narrower agreement centered on the current war. The US delegation, led by US Vice President JD Vance and including US Special Envoy to the Middle East Steve Witkoff and Jared Kushner, appears to be pursuing a narrow, issue-specific negotiation focused on de-escalatory mechanisms around the Strait of Hormuz, and reportedly secondary matters like detainees.
2 - Iran is using the existence of an unknown number of naval mines it laid in the Strait of Hormuz to force ships to use Iranian territorial waters to traverse the Strait, which enables Iran to shakedown these ships for fees while the ships are in Iranian territorial waters. This protection racket is illegal under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Iran likely designed its threatening behavior and its shakedowns to disrupt the global economy, which Iran calculates will enable it to extract concessions from the United States. Iran warned merchant ships that mines could exist in a “hazardous area” that covers 1,394 sq km of the Strait, including the normal traffic separation scheme (shipping lanes) that ships use to transit the Strait.
3 - The current ceasefire will provide Iran an opportunity to reorganize its missile force and recover from the temporary disruption wrought to the missile force during constant US and Israeli operations. Consistent US and Israeli operations over Iran had suppressed Iran’s missile force by preventing Iran from digging out launchers, disrupting command-and-control, and creating pervasive fear in military units that made them unwilling or unable to conduct attacks, as ISW-CTP has previously assessed.
4 - Iranian Supreme Leader Mojtaba Khamenei continues to recover from severe facial and leg injuries that he sustained in the February 28 strike on the supreme leader’s compound in Tehran Province. Three unspecified individuals close to Mojtaba’s inner circle told Reuters on April 11 that the strike disfigured Mojtaba’s face and injured one or both of his legs.
5 - The People’s Republic of China (PRC) may be helping Iran to reconstitute some of its degraded air defense capabilities during the current ceasefire. The PRC is preparing to deliver man-portable air-defense systems (MANPADS) to Iran within the coming weeks, according to three sources familiar with recent US intelligence assessments.
Key Takeaways
1 - Iran and the United States have fundamentally different interpretations of the ongoing negotiations, which will generate friction. Iran seeks an all-encompassing agreement that will end the threat of war with the United States, while the United States seeks a much narrower agreement centered on the current war. The US delegation, led by US Vice President JD Vance and including US Special Envoy to the Middle East Steve Witkoff and Jared Kushner, appears to be pursuing a narrow, issue-specific negotiation focused on de-escalatory mechanisms around the Strait of Hormuz, and reportedly secondary matters like detainees.
2 - Iran is using the existence of an unknown number of naval mines it laid in the Strait of Hormuz to force ships to use Iranian territorial waters to traverse the Strait, which enables Iran to shakedown these ships for fees while the ships are in Iranian territorial waters. This protection racket is illegal under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Iran likely designed its threatening behavior and its shakedowns to disrupt the global economy, which Iran calculates will enable it to extract concessions from the United States. Iran warned merchant ships that mines could exist in a “hazardous area” that covers 1,394 sq km of the Strait, including the normal traffic separation scheme (shipping lanes) that ships use to transit the Strait.
3 - The current ceasefire will provide Iran an opportunity to reorganize its missile force and recover from the temporary disruption wrought to the missile force during constant US and Israeli operations. Consistent US and Israeli operations over Iran had suppressed Iran’s missile force by preventing Iran from digging out launchers, disrupting command-and-control, and creating pervasive fear in military units that made them unwilling or unable to conduct attacks, as ISW-CTP has previously assessed.
4 - Iranian Supreme Leader Mojtaba Khamenei continues to recover from severe facial and leg injuries that he sustained in the February 28 strike on the supreme leader’s compound in Tehran Province. Three unspecified individuals close to Mojtaba’s inner circle told Reuters on April 11 that the strike disfigured Mojtaba’s face and injured one or both of his legs.
5 - The People’s Republic of China (PRC) may be helping Iran to reconstitute some of its degraded air defense capabilities during the current ceasefire. The PRC is preparing to deliver man-portable air-defense systems (MANPADS) to Iran within the coming weeks, according to three sources familiar with recent US intelligence assessments.
From YouTube: Boeing Starliner crew mission declared Type A mishap, most serious kind
An example of oversight.
And evaluation.
- Click here for it.
- Wikipedia: Commercial Crew Program.
- Wikipedia: NASA Authorization Act of 2005.
From the New York Times: Orban, Beacon to the Right, Concedes Defeat in Hungary’s Election
- Click here for the article.
Prime Minister Viktor Orban of Hungary, a lodestar for MAGA culture warriors and right-wing populists in Europe, conceded defeat on Sunday in a general election, breaking the momentum of a global nationalist revival promoted by President Trump.
His defeat paves the way for Peter Magyar, a former Orban loyalist and the leader of the main opposition party, to take over as Hungary’s prime minister once the newly elected Parliament meets.
- Wikipedia: Parliamentary system.
- Wikipedia: Proportional representation.
- Wikipedia: 2026 Hungarian parliamentary election.
- Wikipedia: Authoritarianism.
- What is a MAGA culture warrior?
- What is a right-wing populist?
- What is liberal democracy?
Thursday, April 9, 2026
In the news (4/9/2026) . . .
- Title 31 of the United States Code.
- Democratic vs. Republican Farm Bill Proposals: a Comparison.
- Ad hoc.
- 1970s energy crisis.
- Market (economics).
- How Iran’s Information War Machine Operates Online.
- Supreme Court remade by Trump ushers in historic defeats for civil rights.
- Inside the unbuilding of Trump's border wall.
- Cops vs. crypto clash looms in the Senate.
- Dan Patrick says Republicans will “have a tough time” holding Texas House majority in November.
- Democratic vs. Republican Farm Bill Proposals: a Comparison.
- Ad hoc.
- 1970s energy crisis.
- Market (economics).
- How Iran’s Information War Machine Operates Online.
- Supreme Court remade by Trump ushers in historic defeats for civil rights.
- Inside the unbuilding of Trump's border wall.
- Cops vs. crypto clash looms in the Senate.
- Dan Patrick says Republicans will “have a tough time” holding Texas House majority in November.
Wednesday, April 8, 2026
Regarding Tax Breaks
- Texas is giving data centers more than $1 billion in tax breaks each year.
Texas will lose out on at least $3.1 billion in sales tax revenue over the next two years thanks to an exemption for the state’s booming data center industry, according to the comptroller’s office.
That figure is likely a vast underestimate given the explosion of new facilities being built, but already makes the tax break one of the state’s costliest incentive programs and soon to be the most expensive of its kind in the nation.
Lawmakers, who will meet in January for the next legislative session, say they are considering proposals to either limit the scope of the tax break or get rid of it altogether.
. . . Lawmakers approved the tax break more than a decade ago, when data centers were smaller and required fewer resources. From 2014 to 2022, the exemption amounted to between $5 million and $30 million in lost state revenue per year. By 2023, that skyrocketed to more than $150 million, and this year Texas is forgoing at least $1.3 billion — a number that is rapidly increasing every year, based on state projections.
Texas will lose out on at least $3.1 billion in sales tax revenue over the next two years thanks to an exemption for the state’s booming data center industry, according to the comptroller’s office.
That figure is likely a vast underestimate given the explosion of new facilities being built, but already makes the tax break one of the state’s costliest incentive programs and soon to be the most expensive of its kind in the nation.
Lawmakers, who will meet in January for the next legislative session, say they are considering proposals to either limit the scope of the tax break or get rid of it altogether.
. . . Lawmakers approved the tax break more than a decade ago, when data centers were smaller and required fewer resources. From 2014 to 2022, the exemption amounted to between $5 million and $30 million in lost state revenue per year. By 2023, that skyrocketed to more than $150 million, and this year Texas is forgoing at least $1.3 billion — a number that is rapidly increasing every year, based on state projections.
From ChatGPT:
- What is a tax break? What types exist in Texas?
- What is the evidence that tax breaks actually create incentives for business development?
- What is the history of tax breaks in Texas?
- What are the most significant tax breaks given to businesses in Texas by the state and local governments?
- What is the Texas Economic Development Act?
- Provide a history of the Texas Economic Development Act.
In the news 4/8/2026 . . .
- Turnout in Houston City Council's District C special election falls short of 6%.
- Grand jury declines to indict Harris County Treasurer Carla Wyatt in vehicle burglary case.
- Harris County treasurer’s criminal case heads to grand jury — behind closed doors.
- Inside Orlando Sanchez and Warren Howell's prep for the Harris County judge GOP runoff.
- Race for Houston's District C council seat headed to runoff between Panzarella, Hellyar.
- What are the downsides to the data center boom? The Texas Legislature aims to find out.
- Inside Annise Parker and Letitia Plummer's preparation for the Harris County judge runoff.
- Grand jury declines to indict Harris County Treasurer Carla Wyatt in vehicle burglary case.
- Harris County treasurer’s criminal case heads to grand jury — behind closed doors.
- Inside Orlando Sanchez and Warren Howell's prep for the Harris County judge GOP runoff.
- Race for Houston's District C council seat headed to runoff between Panzarella, Hellyar.
- What are the downsides to the data center boom? The Texas Legislature aims to find out.
- Inside Annise Parker and Letitia Plummer's preparation for the Harris County judge runoff.
Tuesday, April 7, 2026
From Politico: Fired FBI agents sue Patel, Bondi for ‘retribution campaign’
Checks and Balances
Executive v Executive
In the Federal Courts
- Click here.
The suit, which seeks class action certification and was filed in federal court in Washington, names FBI Director Kash Patel and Attorney General Pam Bondi, along with the FBI and Justice Department, as defendants. The agents argue their First and Fifth Amendment rights were violated based on actual or perceived political affiliation and a lack of due process.
The suit seeks for all similarly situated agents to be reinstated.
- Click here for the suit.
What is a war crime?
- Congress.gov: War Crimes: A Primer.
- From LII: war crime.
A war crime is a serious violation of international humanitarian law committed during armed conflict. It encompasses acts that are prohibited by international treaties and conventions, including the Geneva Conventions and the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.
To be liable for a war crime, the victim must be protected under the Geneva Conventions. GC I, II, and III apply to soldiers, while GC IV applies to civilians and “unlawful combatants.”
The following acts are war crimes under Rome Statute Article 8:Wilful killing;
- Torture or inhuman treatment, including biological experiments;
- Wilfully causing great suffering, or serious injury to body or health;
- Extensive destruction and appropriation of property, not justified by military necessity and carried out unlawfully and wantonly;
- Compelling a prisoner of war or other protected person to serve in the forces of a hostile Power;
- Wilfully depriving a prisoner of war or other protected person of the rights of fair and regular trial;
- Unlawful deportation and transfer or unlawful confinement;
Taking of hostages.
Prosecution for war crimes requires the existence of an armed conflict and that the perpetrator was aware of the conflict (ICC, Elements of Crimes, § 8).
In the context of command responsibility, the ICC will use an “overall control test,” which requires that the defendant have “a role in organizing, coordinating or planning the military actions of the military group, in addition to financing, training and equipping the group or providing operational support to it” (ICC, Lubanga, Confirmation of Charges, § 211 p. 12).
- From LII: war crime.
A war crime is a serious violation of international humanitarian law committed during armed conflict. It encompasses acts that are prohibited by international treaties and conventions, including the Geneva Conventions and the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.
To be liable for a war crime, the victim must be protected under the Geneva Conventions. GC I, II, and III apply to soldiers, while GC IV applies to civilians and “unlawful combatants.”
The following acts are war crimes under Rome Statute Article 8:Wilful killing;
- Torture or inhuman treatment, including biological experiments;
- Wilfully causing great suffering, or serious injury to body or health;
- Extensive destruction and appropriation of property, not justified by military necessity and carried out unlawfully and wantonly;
- Compelling a prisoner of war or other protected person to serve in the forces of a hostile Power;
- Wilfully depriving a prisoner of war or other protected person of the rights of fair and regular trial;
- Unlawful deportation and transfer or unlawful confinement;
Taking of hostages.
Prosecution for war crimes requires the existence of an armed conflict and that the perpetrator was aware of the conflict (ICC, Elements of Crimes, § 8).
In the context of command responsibility, the ICC will use an “overall control test,” which requires that the defendant have “a role in organizing, coordinating or planning the military actions of the military group, in addition to financing, training and equipping the group or providing operational support to it” (ICC, Lubanga, Confirmation of Charges, § 211 p. 12).
Dear ChatGPT: What is the global oil market?
- What is the global oil market?
- What role does the United States play in the global oil market?
- What factors set the price of a gallon of gasoline in the United States?
- Why do gasoline prices vary from state to state?
- What explains the recent increase in gasoline prices?
- Wikipedia: Market (economics).
Monday, April 6, 2026
From the Lobby: The Longest Government Shutdown in U.S. History Is Happening Right Now
I can't vouch for the source, but it seems ok.
The Longest Government Shutdown in U.S. History Is Happening Right Now
Congress is on spring recess. The Department of Homeland Security is not funded. Today marks Day 51 of the longest government shutdown in American history, surpassing the 35-day full government shutdown in 2018-2019. And as of this morning, lawmakers still haven't agreed on how to end it.
So: how did we get here, what's actually being fought over, and is there an end in sight? Let's break it all down.
How We Got Here
To understand this shutdown, you have to go back to January.
The Trump administration had been running a large-scale immigration enforcement operation in Minneapolis called "Operation Metro Surge." On January 7, an ICE agent fatally shot Renée Good, a 37-year-old American woman, while she was in her car. Federal officials said she tried to run over the agent. Video footage reviewed by multiple news outlets and Minneapolis's own mayor appeared to contradict that account. Then on January 25, federal agents fatally shot Alex Pretti, another American citizen, during a confrontation near an ongoing protest. Pretti was a lawful gun owner with a carry permit and no criminal record, and eyewitness accounts again challenged the federal government's version of events.
The two killings set off massive protests, a statewide business strike, and bipartisan calls for investigation. More importantly for our purposes, they completely reshaped the politics of funding the Department of Homeland Security.
Democrats drew a line. They refused to approve any new funding for ICE (Immigration and Customs Enforcement) or CBP (Customs and Border Protection) without reforms to how those agencies operate: body cameras for agents, a ban on face coverings during operations, judicial warrants to enter homes and businesses, and an end to racial profiling, among other demands. Republicans passed a full-year DHS funding bill through the House without those reforms, but it couldn't clear the Senate's 60-vote filibuster threshold. DHS funding lapsed on February 14, and the shutdown began.
What's at Stake
TSA agents have been working without pay for nearly two months. By late March, callout rates hit 40-50% at some airports, security wait times exceeded four and a half hours (TSA called them the longest in the agency's history), and more than 500 officers quit outright. Beyond airports, FEMA has been operating at reduced capacity, Coast Guard personnel have been working without full resources, cybersecurity operations have been scaled back, and security preparations for the 2026 FIFA World Cup and 2028 Olympics have been disrupted.
Here's the irony: ICE and CBP (the agencies at the center of this fight) have been largely fine. Last year's Republican tax-and-spending package included roughly $75 billion in separate funding for immigration enforcement. The agencies Democrats are refusing to fund already have money. The agencies that don't have money are the ones nobody is arguing about.
The Standoff
Over the past seven weeks, Congress has been stuck in a loop.
The Senate's approach was to fund everything at DHS except ICE and CBP, since those agencies already have cash from last year. This was designed to end the shutdown for the parts of DHS that are actually running out of money. The Senate passed this bill unanimously on March 26. The House rejected it, passed its own 60-day extension funding the entire department (including ICE and CBP), and sent that to the Senate, where Democrats declared it dead on arrival. Two bills, zero overlap. Then everyone left for a two-week spring recess.
On April 1, something shifted. Trump urged Republicans to fund ICE and CBP through budget reconciliation (a process that only requires a simple majority in the Senate, bypassing a Democratic filibuster). Hours later, Speaker Johnson and Majority Leader Thune released a joint statement endorsing a "two-track" plan: first, pass the Senate's bill to reopen most of DHS immediately; second, fund ICE and CBP separately through reconciliation by June 1. This was a big reversal for Johnson, who had called the Senate bill "a joke" less than a week earlier.
The Senate passed the bill again on April 2 by unanimous consent, sending it back to the House. But the House hasn't voted on it. Johnson told Republicans he won't schedule a vote until the Senate shows real progress on the reconciliation bill. His members don't trust the Senate to follow through on the second track if the House goes first on the first one. Meanwhile, Trump signed executive orders to pay TSA agents and then all DHS employees using existing funds, which has eased the immediate pain but also reduced the political urgency to cut a deal.
What to Watch
Congress returns April 14. That's the earliest realistic window for a House vote. The key variable is whether the Senate Budget Committee (chaired by Lindsey Graham) can show enough progress on the ICE/CBP reconciliation bill to give House Republicans cover to vote for the two-track plan. Freedom Caucus members like Rep. Scott Perry have said they'll never vote for a bill that excludes immigration enforcement funding, so Johnson will need to figure out exactly how many Republican defections he can absorb.
A deal exists on paper. Whether it can survive the politics is the open question. We'll be watching when Congress gavels back in next week.
The Longest Government Shutdown in U.S. History Is Happening Right Now
Congress is on spring recess. The Department of Homeland Security is not funded. Today marks Day 51 of the longest government shutdown in American history, surpassing the 35-day full government shutdown in 2018-2019. And as of this morning, lawmakers still haven't agreed on how to end it.
So: how did we get here, what's actually being fought over, and is there an end in sight? Let's break it all down.
How We Got Here
To understand this shutdown, you have to go back to January.
The Trump administration had been running a large-scale immigration enforcement operation in Minneapolis called "Operation Metro Surge." On January 7, an ICE agent fatally shot Renée Good, a 37-year-old American woman, while she was in her car. Federal officials said she tried to run over the agent. Video footage reviewed by multiple news outlets and Minneapolis's own mayor appeared to contradict that account. Then on January 25, federal agents fatally shot Alex Pretti, another American citizen, during a confrontation near an ongoing protest. Pretti was a lawful gun owner with a carry permit and no criminal record, and eyewitness accounts again challenged the federal government's version of events.
The two killings set off massive protests, a statewide business strike, and bipartisan calls for investigation. More importantly for our purposes, they completely reshaped the politics of funding the Department of Homeland Security.
Democrats drew a line. They refused to approve any new funding for ICE (Immigration and Customs Enforcement) or CBP (Customs and Border Protection) without reforms to how those agencies operate: body cameras for agents, a ban on face coverings during operations, judicial warrants to enter homes and businesses, and an end to racial profiling, among other demands. Republicans passed a full-year DHS funding bill through the House without those reforms, but it couldn't clear the Senate's 60-vote filibuster threshold. DHS funding lapsed on February 14, and the shutdown began.
What's at Stake
TSA agents have been working without pay for nearly two months. By late March, callout rates hit 40-50% at some airports, security wait times exceeded four and a half hours (TSA called them the longest in the agency's history), and more than 500 officers quit outright. Beyond airports, FEMA has been operating at reduced capacity, Coast Guard personnel have been working without full resources, cybersecurity operations have been scaled back, and security preparations for the 2026 FIFA World Cup and 2028 Olympics have been disrupted.
Here's the irony: ICE and CBP (the agencies at the center of this fight) have been largely fine. Last year's Republican tax-and-spending package included roughly $75 billion in separate funding for immigration enforcement. The agencies Democrats are refusing to fund already have money. The agencies that don't have money are the ones nobody is arguing about.
The Standoff
Over the past seven weeks, Congress has been stuck in a loop.
The Senate's approach was to fund everything at DHS except ICE and CBP, since those agencies already have cash from last year. This was designed to end the shutdown for the parts of DHS that are actually running out of money. The Senate passed this bill unanimously on March 26. The House rejected it, passed its own 60-day extension funding the entire department (including ICE and CBP), and sent that to the Senate, where Democrats declared it dead on arrival. Two bills, zero overlap. Then everyone left for a two-week spring recess.
On April 1, something shifted. Trump urged Republicans to fund ICE and CBP through budget reconciliation (a process that only requires a simple majority in the Senate, bypassing a Democratic filibuster). Hours later, Speaker Johnson and Majority Leader Thune released a joint statement endorsing a "two-track" plan: first, pass the Senate's bill to reopen most of DHS immediately; second, fund ICE and CBP separately through reconciliation by June 1. This was a big reversal for Johnson, who had called the Senate bill "a joke" less than a week earlier.
The Senate passed the bill again on April 2 by unanimous consent, sending it back to the House. But the House hasn't voted on it. Johnson told Republicans he won't schedule a vote until the Senate shows real progress on the reconciliation bill. His members don't trust the Senate to follow through on the second track if the House goes first on the first one. Meanwhile, Trump signed executive orders to pay TSA agents and then all DHS employees using existing funds, which has eased the immediate pain but also reduced the political urgency to cut a deal.
What to Watch
Congress returns April 14. That's the earliest realistic window for a House vote. The key variable is whether the Senate Budget Committee (chaired by Lindsey Graham) can show enough progress on the ICE/CBP reconciliation bill to give House Republicans cover to vote for the two-track plan. Freedom Caucus members like Rep. Scott Perry have said they'll never vote for a bill that excludes immigration enforcement funding, so Johnson will need to figure out exactly how many Republican defections he can absorb.
A deal exists on paper. Whether it can survive the politics is the open question. We'll be watching when Congress gavels back in next week.
Dear ChatGPT: List the history of government shutdowns in American
- Click here for the answer.
- Detail the history of the 1995–96 government shutdown.
Why Shutdowns Happen
Root cause: breakdown in the federal appropriations process
Legal trigger: Antideficiency Act.
- Prohibits agencies from spending money not appropriated by Congress
Turning point: Benjamin Civiletti opinions (1980–1981)
- Required agencies to actually shut down operations, rather than continue informally
Before 1980, funding gaps occurred, but full shutdowns did not.
Dear ChatGPT: Outline the appropriations process on the national level
- Outline the appropriations process on the national level.
Process Map
- Congress adopts budget resolution
- Spending caps allocated (302(a), 302(b))
- Subcommittees draft 12 bills
- House & Senate pass versions
- Conference resolves differences
- President signs into law
- Agencies execute spending
The 12 Subcommittees (core jurisdictions):
- Agriculture
- Commerce–Justice–Science
- Defense
- Energy & Water
- Financial Services
- Homeland Security
- Interior–Environment
- Labor–HHS–Education
- Legislative Branch
- Military Construction–VA
- State–Foreign Operations
- Transportation–HUD
- Outline the appropriations process in Texas.
I. Constitutional Foundation
II. Key Institutional Actors
III. Budget Cycle Overview (Biennial)
IV. Structure of the Budget Bill
V. Key Constraints & Features
VI. Supplemental & Interim Budgeting
VII. Timeline (Simplified)
VIII. Practical Reality (Important Insight)
IX. Connection to Texas Fiscal Culture
- Organized by:
- - Article I: General Government
- - Article II: Health & Human Services
- - Article III: Education
- - Article IV: Judiciary
- - Article V: Public Safety
- - Article VI: Natural Resources
- - Article VII: Business & Economic Development
- - Article VIII: Regulatory
- - Article IX: General Provisions
- Outline the appropriations process in local governments in Texas.
I. Constitutional & Legal Foundation
II. Types of Local Governments (Different Appropriation Systems)
III. Core Structure of the Local Appropriations Process
IV. Key Legal Constraints on Local Appropriations
V. Differences from State/Federal Appropriations
VI. Special Notes for Texas (Important for Your Research)
VII. Simplified Flowchart
Also: What is the difference between an appropriations bill and a budget bill?
Sunday, April 5, 2026
From the Texas Tribune: This state agency was created to investigate Texas universities. How that works is a mystery.
- Click here for the article.
A new state office with the power to investigate whether public universities in Texas are violating laws on diversity, curriculum and campus decision-making has no written policies explaining how those investigations work, even after accepting complaints for nearly three months.
The ombudsman accepts complaints from students, faculty and staff alleging violations of two state laws:
A 2023 ban on diversity, equity and inclusion offices, programs and training at public colleges and universities.
A 2025 law limiting faculty’s role in some curriculum, grievance and discipline decisions.
The stakes are high: If the office finds a university violated a law and the school does not fix the problem within a set time, the ombudsman can recommend that lawmakers cut access to state funds until the school complies.
State law requires the office to provide complainants and subjects of complaints with a copy of its policies and procedures for complaint investigation and resolution. But when The Texas Tribune asked for those documents, Ombudsman Brandon Simmons pointed to a page on the office’s website that describes how complaints are filed and sets deadlines for when universities must be notified and respond and when the office must issue reports. It is unclear whether that satisfies the law’s requirements.
Friday, April 3, 2026
Tuesday, March 31, 2026
Conversion Therapy
- Soctusblog: Chiles v. Salazar.
- Oyez: Chiles v. Salazar.
- Wikipedia: Conversion therapy.
- Wikipedia: Conversion therapy in the United States.
- Jim Campbell.
- Economic Burden Of LGBTQ+ Conversion Therapy Is $9 Billion.
- Oyez: Chiles v. Salazar.
- Wikipedia: Conversion therapy.
- Wikipedia: Conversion therapy in the United States.
- Jim Campbell.
- Economic Burden Of LGBTQ+ Conversion Therapy Is $9 Billion.
Monday, March 30, 2026
From the CRS: The Appropriations Process: A Brief Overview
- Click here for it.
A summary from AI Overview:
Key Stages in the Appropriations Process
President’s Budget Request: The process begins, usually in February, with the President submitting a budget proposal to Congress.
Budget Resolution: Congress passes a budget resolution setting top-line spending limits (302(a) allocations) for the House and Senate Appropriations Committees
Subcommittee Allocations (302(b)): The Appropriations Committees divide the total budget into 12 parts, or 302(b) allocations, for each of their 12 subcommittees.
Drafting & Markup: Subcommittees hold hearings and write their specific funding bills.
House and Senate Action: Bills are debated, amended, and voted on by the full House and Senate.
Conference Committee: Differences between the House and Senate versions of the bills are negotiated and resolved.
Final Approval & Signature: The reconciled, final bill must be approved by both houses and signed by the President to become law.
Key Concepts
Fiscal Year: The federal fiscal year runs from October 1 to September 30.
Omnibus Bill: If the 12 bills are not passed individually, they are often combined into an "omnibus" bill to fund the government, as described by the Library of Congress Research Guides.
Continuing Resolution (CR): Temporary funding legislation used if the regular bills are not passed by October 1, allowing agencies to continue operating, as explained in this YouTube video.
Authorization vs. Appropriation: A two-step process where "authorizations" establish programs and recommend funding, while "appropriations" actually provide the funds to spend, says EveryCRSReport.com.
If Congress cannot pass the bills or a CR, a government shutdown occurs, as detailed in this YouTube video.
Sunday, March 29, 2026
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