- Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board. 

- Definition of public policy by different scholars.

- What are rare earth metals?

- Artemis Accords.

- If a meteor lands on my property who owns it? why?

- Is the United States planning to mine for materials on Mars?

- Tell us about child labor laws in the United States.

- Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act of 2015.

- Hedge fund.

- AI Legislation Tracker.

- Artificial Intelligence 2025 Legislation.

- Regulating Artificial Intelligence: U.S. and International Approaches and Considerations for Congress.

- Burr conspiracy.

 

For our look at U.S. Economic Policy

- What role did the North American colonies play in the British economy from 1607 until 1776?

- What was the economic condition of the American colonies prior to 1776?

- What was the economic condition of the United States between 1776 and 1787?

- What was the basis of the economic policy of the United States between 1787 and 2025?

Senate Select Committee on Civil Discourse and Freedom of Speech in Higher Education

- Click here. 

Regarding Westward Expansion

 

Dear ChatGPT: What policies promoted westward expansion beginning in the 1790s? 

The top 20 laws: 

Proclamation Line of 1763: Restricted colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains. Significant because it was the first major attempt to regulate western expansion—and a major source of colonial resentment.

Land Ordinance of 1785: Created the township-and-range survey grid still used today. Structured how western land would be divided, sold, and settled.

Northwest Ordinance of 1787: Established how new western territories would become states; banned slavery north of the Ohio River. Defined the template for all future continental expansion.

Louisiana Purchase (1803): Doubled U.S. territory. Created the geographical foundation for westward expansion and future conflicts over slavery.

Lewis and Clark Expedition Authorization (1803–1804): Not a single statute, but the federal authorization funded the reconnaissance that guided expansion, diplomacy, and claims to the Pacific Northwest.

Indian Removal Act (1830): Authorized removal of Native tribes east of the Mississippi. Central to the forced displacement that opened the Southeast and Midwest to white settlement.

Preemption Act of 1841: Legalized squatter’s rights, allowing settlers to purchase improved land cheaply. Encouraged mass migration into the West before formal surveys.

Texas Annexation Resolutions (1845): Triggered the U.S.–Mexico War; pivotal for acquiring vast southwestern lands.

Oregon Treaty (1846): Secured U.S. claims in the Pacific Northwest. Set the U.S.–British boundary at the 49th parallel.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848): Ended the Mexican–American War and transferred what is now CA/NV/UT/AZ/NM/CO/WY. The largest land cession in American history after Louisiana.

Homestead Act (1862): Granted 160 acres of free land to settlers. One of the most important settlement laws in U.S. history; dominated western migration patterns for 60 years.

Pacific Railway Acts (1862, 1864): Funded the transcontinental railroad through land grants and loans. Created national markets, population booms, and massive land dispossession for tribes.

Morrill Land-Grant Act (1862): Indirect but major: funded universities that developed agricultural science, transforming the rural frontier economy.

Dawes Act (General Allotment Act, 1887): Dissolved tribal landownership and allotted parcels to individuals. Resulted in the loss of ~90 million acres of Native land.

Reclamation Act (1902): Financed irrigation projects across the West. Enabled settlement of arid regions (CA, AZ, NV, NM); fundamental to modern Western agriculture.

Federal Reserve Act (1913) — Indirect: Created stable capital markets that enabled infrastructure and resource extraction across the West.

Federal Highway Act (1956): The Interstate Highway System made remote regions economically viable. One of the most transformative infrastructure laws for the post-frontier West.

Indian Reorganization Act (1934): Reversed the Dawes Act; restored tribal land bases and governance. Critical for understanding the long arc of federal-Native relations shaped by expansion.

Wilderness Act (1964): Shifted federal land policy from settlement/resource extraction toward preservation. Marked the end of the “expansionist” phase of U.S. land policy.

Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA, 1971): Settled Indigenous land claims in Alaska, transferring 44 million acres to Native corporations. A major modern land-allocation milestone tied to frontier resource extraction.

What is predictive policing?

It's something Palantir offers law enforcement.

- Click here for the Wikipedia entry. 


Predictive policing is the usage of mathematics, predictive analytics, and other analytical techniques in law enforcement to identify potential criminal activity. A report published by the RAND Corporation identified four general categories predictive policing methods fall into: methods for predicting crimes, methods for predicting offenders, methods for predicting perpetrators' identities, and methods for predicting victims of crime.

Methodology

Predictive policing uses data on the times, locations and nature of past crimes to provide insight to police strategists concerning where, and at what times, police patrols should patrol, or maintain a presence, in order to make the best use of resources or to have the greatest chance of deterring or preventing future crimes. This type of policing detects signals and patterns in crime reports to anticipate if crime will spike, when a shooting may occur, where the next car will be broken into, and who the next crime victim will be. Algorithms are produced by taking into account these factors, which consist of large amounts of data that can be analyzed. The use of algorithms creates a more effective approach that speeds up the process of predictive policing since it can quickly factor in different variables to produce an automated outcome. From the predictions the algorithm generates, they should be coupled with a prevention strategy, which typically sends an officer to the predicted time and place of the crime. The use of automated predictive policing supplies a more accurate and efficient process when looking at future crimes because there is data to back up decisions, rather than just the instincts of police officers. By having police use information from predictive policing, they are able to anticipate the concerns of communities, wisely allocate resources to times and places, and prevent victimization.

Police may also use data accumulated on shootings and the sounds of gunfire to identify locations of shootings. The city of Chicago uses data blended from population mapping crime statistics to improve monitoring and identify patterns.

From ScotusBlog: What James Madison thought about AR-15s

- find out here. 

Who were the top donors to presidential candidates in 2024 and what did they expect in return for their contributions?

Click here for the source.

What are the political goals of these people?

- Elon Musk.
- Timothy Mellon.
- Miriam Adelson.
- Richard & Elizabeth Uihlein.
- Kenneth Griffin.
- Jeffery & Janine Yass
- Paul Singer.
- Michael Bloomberg.
- Dustin Moskovitz.
- Marc Andreessen.

Another winner . . .

 

Regarding Learning Resources, Inc. v. Trump

- Oyez: Learning Resources, Inc. v. Trump.

- Scotusblog: Learning Resources, Inc. v. Trump.

- Wikipedia: Learning Resources, Inc. v. Trump.

- Oral Argument - Audio.

- Transcript. 

- D. John Sauer.

- Office of the Solicitor General.

- Neal Katyal.

- The Major Questions Doctrine.

- Wikipedia: International Emergency Economic Powers Act.

- Wikipedia: List of national emergencies in the United States.

Monty Python and the Holy Grail - The Insulting Frenchman

Dear ChatGPT: Provide a list of congressional legislation concerning railroads over Amerian history

- Click here for the answer.

 

From Scotusblog: Justices agree to decide major election law case

The case is Watson v. Republican National Committee

It concerns mail-in voting and whether they can be counted if receive after the election. 

Dear ChatGPT: What are the controversies concerning counting mail in ballots?

From the article: 

Setting the stage for a major ruling on election law, the Supreme Court on Monday agreed to decide whether federal law requires ballots to be not only cast by voters but also received by election officials by Election Day. As part of the list of orders from the justices’ private conference on Friday, the court took up Watson v. Republican National Committee, a challenge by the Republican National Committee and others to a Mississippi law (as well as similar laws in 30 other states and the District of Columbia) that allow mail-in ballots to be counted as long as they are received within five business days after Election Day. . . .

It's Treason Time in Tennessee: The Wild Story of the First Impeachment ...

What is topography? What is the United States Geologial Survey?

- Click here for the Wikipedia entry:  

Topography is the study of forms and features of land surfaces. The topography of an area may refer to landforms and features themselves, or a description or depiction in maps.

Topography is a field of geoscience and planetary science, and is concerned with local detail in general, including not only relief, but also natural, artificial, and cultural features such as roads, land boundaries, and buildings.[1] In the United States, topography often means specifically relief, even though the USGS topographic maps record not just elevation contours, but also roads, populated places, structures, land boundaries, and so on.[2]

Topography in a narrow sense involves the recording of relief or terrain, the three-dimensional quality of the surface, and the identification of specific landforms; this is also known as geomorphometry. In modern usage, this involves generation of elevation data in digital form (DEM). It is often considered to include the graphic representation of the landform on a map by a variety of cartographic relief depiction techniques, including contour lines, hypsometric tints, and relief shading.


- Click here for the United States Geological Survey.

The United States Geological Survey (USGS), founded as the Geological Survey, is an agency of the United States Department of the Interior whose work spans the disciplines of biology, geography, geology, and hydrology. The agency was founded on March 3, 1879, to study the landscape of the United States, its natural resources, and the natural hazards that threaten it. The agency also makes maps of planets and moons, based on data from U.S. space probes.

The sole scientific agency of the U.S. Department of the Interior, USGS is a fact-finding research organization with no regulatory responsibility.[2] It is headquartered in Reston, Virginia, with major offices near Lakewood, Colorado; at the Denver Federal Center; and in NASA Research Park in California.[3] In 2009, it employed about 8,670 people.[4]


- Click here for the history of the USGS from its website.

Dear ChatGPT: Independent Expenditure-Only Committees

 Independent Expenditure-Only Committees — commonly known as Super PACs — are a type of political action committee that can raise and spend unlimited amounts of money to advocate for or against political candidates. However, they cannot coordinate directly with candidates or political parties.

Here’s a breakdown:

🔹 Key Features

• Unlimited fundraising: They can accept unlimited contributions from individuals, corporations, labor unions, and other groups.

• Independent spending: They spend money on things like ads, mailers, and social media campaigns that support or oppose candidates, but they must do so independently — no coordination with a campaign’s strategy or messaging.

• Disclosure: They must report their donors and expenditures regularly to the Federal Election Commission (FEC).

🔹 Legal Background

• Created after two major court decisions:

  1. Citizens United v. FEC (2010): Allowed corporations and unions to spend unlimited money on independent political advocacy.

  2. SpeechNow.org v. FEC (2010): Ruled that groups making only independent expenditures could raise unlimited funds.
     Together, these rulings gave rise to Super PACs.

🔹 Example Activities

• Running TV, radio, and online ads attacking or promoting candidates.

• Producing issue-based messaging close to elections.

• Engaging in voter outreach independent of official campaigns.

🔹 Examples of Major Super PACs

• Priorities USA Action – supports Democratic candidates.

• Senate Leadership Fund – supports Republican Senate candidates.

• Club for Growth Action – supports conservative, anti-tax candidates.

• EMILY’s List Women Vote! – supports pro-choice Democratic women.

Dear ChaptGPT: What is the difference between a political party and a political action committee?

 A political party and a political action committee (PAC) are both involved in politics and elections, but they serve very different roles and have different legal structures and purposes. Here’s a clear breakdown of their differences:

---

1. Definition and Purpose

• Political Party:
  A political party is an organized group of people who share similar political beliefs and seek to gain and hold political power by running candidates for public office and influencing government policy.

  • Examples: Democratic Party, Republican Party, Green Party, Libertarian Party.

  • Main Goal: Win elections and govern.

• Political Action Committee (PAC):
  A PAC is an organization formed to raise and spend money to influence elections, but it does not run candidates itself.

  • Main Goal: Support or oppose specific candidates or legislation financially, not to directly govern.

---

2. Legal Status and Regulation

• Political Party:

  • Recognized and regulated by federal and state election laws.

  • Must register with election authorities.

  • Can directly nominate candidates and place them on ballots.

  • Can raise and spend money, but within limits on contributions and disclosures.

• PAC:

  • Created by individuals, corporations, unions, or interest groups to fund political activity.

  • Regulated by the Federal Election Commission (FEC).

  • Cannot nominate candidates.

  • Has strict contribution and spending rules depending on its type (traditional PAC, Super PAC, etc.).

---

3. Activities

• Political Party:

  • Recruits candidates.

  • Organizes campaigns.

  • Mobilizes voters.

  • Develops party platforms and policy positions.

• PAC:

  • Raises money from members or donors.

  • Donates to candidates or spends independently (e.g., on ads).

  • Advocates for specific issues or legislation.

---

4. Example

• Political Party Example:
  The Democratic Party runs candidates for offices at all levels, holds conventions, and develops national and state platforms.

• PAC Example:
  EMILY’s List is a PAC that raises money to support pro-choice Democratic women candidates.
  NRA Political Victory Fund supports candidates who favor gun rights.

Dear ChatGPT: What is a 501(c)(4) “Social Welfare” Organization?

 A 501(c)(4) “social welfare” organization is a type of nonprofit group recognized by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) under section 501(c)(4) of the U.S. tax code. These organizations are meant to promote social welfare, but they are also allowed to engage in a limited amount of political activity.

Here’s a breakdown of what that means:

---

🔹 Purpose

A 501(c)(4) must be primarily engaged in promoting social welfare — that is, activities that benefit the community as a whole.
Examples include:

• Advocating for civil rights or environmental protection

• Promoting community safety or public health

• Educating the public on policy issues

---

🔹 Political Activity

Unlike charitable nonprofits (501(c)(3) organizations), 501(c)(4)s can engage in political campaigning and lobbying, as long as those activities are not their primary purpose.
They can:

• Lobby lawmakers for or against legislation

• Support or oppose candidates indirectly (through issue advocacy)

However, direct political campaigning (explicitly urging votes for or against a candidate) cannot be their main activity.

---

🔹 Donations and Disclosure

• Donations are not tax-deductible for donors (unlike 501(c)(3) charities).

• 501(c)(4)s do not have to publicly disclose their donors, which has led critics to refer to some as sources of “dark money” in politics.

• They must report financial activities to the IRS on Form 990, but donor names are usually kept confidential.

---

🔹 Examples

• The National Rifle Association (NRA) operates a 501(c)(4) branch called NRA Institute for Legislative Action.

• AARP (American Association of Retired Persons) is a 501(c)(4) that advocates for older Americans’ interests.

• Planned Parenthood Action Fund is another 501(c)(4) focused on reproductive rights advocacy.

Dear ChatGPT: What is a political action committee?

 A Political Action Committee (PAC) is an organization that collects and spends money to influence elections or legislation, typically on behalf of a particular interest group, corporation, union, or cause.

Here’s a breakdown:

1. Purpose

PACs are formed to raise and donate money to political candidates, parties, or campaigns that align with their goals. They can also spend money on advertising and other efforts to support or oppose candidates.

2. Legal Structure

PACs are regulated by the Federal Election Commission (FEC) in the United States. They must register, report their donors and expenditures, and follow strict limits on contributions.

3. Types of PACs

• Traditional PACs:
  Can donate directly to candidates but are limited in how much they can contribute (for example, up to $5,000 per candidate per election).

  • Examples: labor union PACs, corporate PACs, trade association PACs.

• Super PACs (Independent Expenditure-Only Committees):
  Cannot donate directly to candidates or coordinate with campaigns, but they can spend unlimited amounts on independent efforts like TV ads, mailers, or social media campaigns supporting or opposing candidates.

  • Example: Priorities USA Action (supports Democrats), Club for Growth Action (supports conservative candidates).

• Leadership PACs:
  Formed by politicians to raise money and support other candidates—often used to build influence within a party.

4. Influence

PACs play a major role in modern American politics by:

• Amplifying special interest influence over policy.

• Funding campaign advertising and outreach.

• Helping candidates who share their policy priorities.

Critics argue that PACs, especially Super PACs, give wealthy donors and corporations outsized influence, while supporters say they enable free political participation and representation of diverse viewpoints.

Some timelines to go over in class.

What major legislation was passed between 1788 and 2024?

Were the dominant industries in the United States between 1788 and 2024?

What platforms were offered by major political parties during the campaigns held between 1788 and 2024?

Competing claims to North America - 1600-ish

 

Dear ChatGPT: What is a political consultant?

- Click here for the full answer. 

A political consultant is a professional who helps candidates, political parties, or interest groups plan and execute their campaigns. Their job is to develop and implement strategies that increase a candidate’s chances of winning an election or achieving a political goal.

Here’s a breakdown of what they do:

Core Responsibilities
- Campaign Strategy: Design overall plans, including messaging, voter targeting, and timing of major announcements or ads.
- Polling and Research: Analyze public opinion data to understand what voters care about and how they view the candidate or issues.
- Media Management: Oversee advertising (TV, radio, online, and print), social media presence, and public relations.
- Speechwriting and Messaging: Help shape the candidate’s message and ensure consistency across speeches, ads, and interviews.
- Fundraising: Advise on how to raise money effectively and legally, sometimes connecting campaigns with donors and political action committees (PACs).
- Crisis Management: Handle negative press, scandals, or attacks from opponents.

Types of Political Consultants
- Campaign Managers – Run day-to-day campaign operations.
- Media Consultants – Produce and place advertisements.
- Polling Consultants – Conduct surveys and interpret voter data.
- Digital Consultants – Focus on social media, online ads, and email outreach.
- Fundraising Consultants – Organize events and develop donor networks.

Why They Matter

Political consultants play a key role in modern politics because campaigns have become highly complex and data-driven. Their expertise can make the difference between a well-run campaign and one that fails to reach voters effectively.


Major Consultants in the Houston area: 

- Grant Martin — Grant Martin Campaigns.
- Alex Lucas — Maverick Campaigns (MaverickCampaignsLLC.com).
- The Daniels Group.
- Guardian Public Strategies / Guardian Public Affairs.
- GT Strategies LLC.
- Macias Strategies (Luke / Macias team).
- TEXAN Public Strategies.
- Sutton & Smart.
- KC Strategies.
- Mammoth Marketing Group / Mammoth MG.

SB 13: Relating to the use by a political subdivision of public funds for lobbying activities.

- Click here for it. 

- Monkey selfie copyright dispute.

- Gerrymandering Explained.

- Partisan Gerrymandering.

- Rucho v. Common Cause.

- The Next Round of Partisan Gerrymandering Fights.

- 

The Authoritarian Stack How Tech Billionaires Are Building a Post-Democratic America — And Why Europe Is Next

Some hope to dismantle democracy in the United States.

- Click here for the article.

 https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/long-road-election-day

California Prop 50 projected to pass, redrawing congressional map in fav...

Dear ChatGPT: How has social media impacted the spread of information?

Social media has transformed how information spreads—making it faster, broader, and more participatory, but also more prone to distortion. Its impact can be divided into positive and negative effects:


Positive Impacts

Speed and Accessibility
- Information travels instantly across the world, breaking down geographic and institutional barriers.
- Anyone with internet access can share news or firsthand accounts, often faster than traditional media.

Democratization of Information
- Individuals and grassroots movements can reach large audiences without relying on corporate media.
- Social media has empowered marginalized groups to share perspectives often ignored by mainstream outlets.

Citizen Journalism and Awareness
- Real-time reporting from ordinary users has exposed injustices (e.g., police violence, environmental crises) and mobilized social movements (#MeToo, #BlackLivesMatter, Arab Spring).

Customization and Engagement
- Algorithms tailor content to users’ interests, increasing engagement and enabling niche communities around shared topics or causes.


Negative Impacts


Misinformation and Disinformation
- False or misleading content spreads rapidly—sometimes faster than verified news—due to virality algorithms.
- Bad actors, including troll farms and political operatives, exploit platforms to sow confusion or manipulate opinion.

Echo Chambers and Polarization
- Algorithmic filtering reinforces users’ existing beliefs, creating “echo chambers.”
- Exposure to opposing views is limited, deepening ideological divides.

Erosion of Traditional Gatekeeping
- Journalistic verification and editorial oversight have less influence, making it harder to distinguish credible sources from false ones.

Information Overload
- The constant flood of content can overwhelm users, leading to fatigue, shallow engagement, or apathy toward serious issues.

Manipulation and Propaganda
- Governments, corporations, and organized groups use social media for targeted propaganda, often using bots and AI-generated content.


Overall Effect

Social media has democratized communication but destabilized trust. It has given individuals unprecedented power to create and share information, yet it has also blurred the line between truth and falsehood. The result is a more connected—but also more chaotic—information ecosystem.

How did it spread during the 1770's? 

- Watch How (Slowly) News of the Declaration of Independence Spread in Real Time.

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostend_Manifesto?wprov=sfti1#Fallout

From AI Overview: What are the political goals of Nvidia?

Nvidia's primary political goal is to influence government policies that affect its business, primarily by promoting policies favorable to its chip manufacturing and AI development. This includes lobbying for favorable trade conditions, such as access to the Chinese market, and partnering with governments to build national AI infrastructure. The company engages in these activities to support its business objectives, ensure its continued growth, and position itself as a leader in the global AI ecosystem.


Key political goals and activities:

- Access to markets: Nvidia advocates for policies that allow it to sell its chips in key international markets, particularly China, which is crucial for its revenue. This involves navigating export controls and trade restrictions.

- Promoting national AI development: The company works with governments to implement national AI strategies by providing technology and support for domestic AI ecosystems. This positions Nvidia as a key partner in national efforts related to AI infrastructure.

- Influencing trade policies: Nvidia engages in direct communication and lobbying efforts to shape government actions and regulations that impact its operations and customers.

- Building government relationships: The company maintains relationships with policymakers through contributions, lobbying, and direct engagement with government officials to advance its business interests.

- Publicly advocating for its position: Nvidia's CEO, Jensen Huang, has publicly stated the company's stance, for instance, by arguing against restrictions on chip sales to China, emphasizing that collaboration serves everyone's interests.

_______


- What is NVIDIA?

NVIDIA designs and manufactures graphics processing units (GPUs) and other chips, which are used for high-performance computing in sectors like artificial intelligence, video games, professional visualization, and data centers.

The company also develops a wide range of software, systems, and platforms to support these technologies, including its NVIDIA AI Enterprise suite and the NVIDIA DRIVE platform for autonomous vehicles.

Core products and services

Graphics Processing Units (GPUs): These are specialized microchips for handling complex mathematical calculations, originally developed for rendering real-time images in video games. Their parallel processing power is crucial for modern AI and deep learning.

AI and Data Center Solutions: NVIDIA provides the hardware and software for data centers, enabling them to power AI models, cloud services, and high-performance computing.

Gaming: The company offers the GeForce RTX graphics cards, which provide high-end gaming and AI capabilities for PCs, as well as the GeForce NOW streaming service.

Professional Visualization: Solutions like NVIDIA RTX are used for professional applications, such as the creation of visual effects for films and the development of digital twins.Automotive: The NVIDIA DRIVE platform provides computing systems for autonomous vehicles and driver-assistance software.

Robotics: The company's platforms are used to build robots for various industries, from manufacturing to agriculture and healthcare.Software: NVIDIA develops a broad ecosystem of software, including AI models and platforms like NVIDIA Omniverse, which helps create and operate digital twins.

Key applications

Artificial Intelligence: NVIDIA's chips and software are foundational to training and running AI models, making the company a leader in the AI revolution.

Gaming and Content Creation: GPUs are essential for rendering realistic graphics in video games and for professional content creation tools.

Autonomous Systems: NVIDIA provides the technology that powers the sensors and processing needed for self-driving cars and other autonomous robots.

Scientific Research: GPUs are used for complex scientific simulations and research, such as climate modeling and drug discovery.

 https://www.insidehighered.com/news/students/academics/2025/11/04/inside-look-dual-enrollment

Is software development still a thing?

- What is FRED?

Is artificial intelligence reducing the demand for software developers?

Artificial intelligence (AI) is not broadly reducing the overall demand for software developers but is instead transforming the role and increasing demand for specialized skills. AI tools automate repetitive tasks, which boosts developer productivity and allows them to focus on more complex, creative, and high-value work like system design and problem-solving.

Transformation of the Role

Automation of Mundane Tasks: AI tools (like GitHub Copilot) can generate boilerplate code, write unit tests, and assist with debugging and documentation, saving significant time. This removes the most tedious aspects of the job, but requires human oversight to ensure quality, security, and integration with larger systems.

Focus on Higher-Level Skills: The human role is shifting from manual coding to higher-order tasks such as system architecture, complex problem-solving, understanding business logic, and quality assurance.

New Specializations: There is a growing demand for engineers with AI-centric skills, such as machine learning (ML) expertise, prompt engineering, and the ability to integrate AI models into existing software architectures. These skills currently command a salary premium.

Impact on the Job Market

Strong Overall Demand: Despite concerns, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics projects robust job growth for software developers (17-25% over the next decade), much faster than the average for all occupations. The efficiency gains from AI are spurring companies to tackle more ambitious software projects, increasing the overall demand for human talent.

Pressure on Entry-Level Roles: The primary impact is felt in junior or entry-level positions, which traditionally focused on the kind of basic, repetitive coding tasks that AI can now handle efficiently. Companies are hiring fewer new graduates for these specific roles, leading to a "broken rung" in the traditional career ladder.

Upskilling is Essential: For developers at all career stages, continuous learning and adapting to work effectively with AI tools are becoming essential for career resilience and growth.

In essence, AI is acting as a powerful assistant that is redefining the practice of software engineering, not eliminating the need for human developers. Developers who leverage AI and focus on skills where human ingenuity remains irreplaceable will thrive in the evolving landscape.

A look at politics in the US over time

Three questions posed to ChatGPT: 

- What issues dominated politics in the United States over time?

- What have been the dominant industries in the United States over time?

- What major legislation has been passed in the United States over time?

Ask ChatGPT: Is the United States government engaging in propaganda to build support for an invasion of Venezuala?

- Click here for the full response.

There is credible evidence that the Venezuela-focused component of U.S. foreign policy and information operations includes elements that resemble propaganda or narrative-shaping aimed at building public support (or at least acquiescence) for more robust intervention. Whether it amounts to a full-blown campaign explicitly to justify an invasion is less clear and remains contested. Here is a breakdown of what we do know, what is in dispute, and where more scrutiny is needed. . . .

. . .

Why this matters

- Propaganda and narrative framing are important because public support (or lack thereof) heavily influences whether military or covert operations are politically feasible.

- If the U.S. is preparing for escalation, having the narrative groundwork laid helps deter internal dissent or opposition.

- For countries like Venezuela, being aware of these narrative moves means they can attempt counter-narratives or international legal measures.

- From a policy and ethics perspective, if a government uses propaganda to prepare its citizens for war, it raises issues of democratic accountability, transparency, and legality.

From the Pew Research Center: A Year Ahead of the Midterms, Americans’ Dim Views of Both Parties

For review in class.

- Click here for the article. 

Jaws: Quint vs. Hooper beer chugging contest

From Invention and Technology: One Gauge: How Hundreds Of Incompatible Railroads Became A National System

A story about how all railroads in the US began to use a stardard gauge.

Without it, interstate commerce was suppressed.

- Click here for the full article.


As early as 1847 Daniel Webster could say without sounding ludicrous that the railroad “towers above all other inventions of this or the preceding age.” Indeed, by the 1860s American railroads had triumphed over competing forms of transport for most long-distance travel. Shippers welcomed the dependability of year-round rail service. It was cheaper than the turnpike, more flexible and direct than the canal packet or the steamboat, and much faster than any of these.

During the 1850s and 1860s rail mileage expanded so rapidly that it seemed every little valley could afford a branch line. In 1869, with the Golden Spike hammered home at Promontory, Utah, coast-to-coast rail travel became possible for the first time. But American railways still had big problems to correct before they could form a unified national transportation network, and the most urgent of these was the fact that the hundreds of lines proliferating across the country had no common gauge. . . .

- Track gauge in the United States.

- Pacific Railroad Acts.

 

Dear ChatGPT: How do we know if what we see online is real?

1. Start with Healthy Skepticism

Ask yourself:
- Who created or shared this?
- Why would they post it?
- Does it seem designed to trigger strong emotions (anger, outrage, pride)?

Emotional manipulation is one of the biggest red flags for misinformation or coordinated disinformation.


2. Check the Source

- Verify the publisher: Look at the website domain and its “About” page. Legitimate outlets usually list editorial staff, contact information, and a mission statement.
- Cross-check elsewhere: If the story is true, other reputable sources (like AP, Reuters, BBC, or local verified outlets) should also report it.
- Watch for imposters: Fake sites often mimic real ones (e.g., “abcnews.com.co” instead of “abcnews.go.com”).


3. Inspect Images and Videos

- Visuals are often the most convincing — and the most easily faked.
- Reverse image search (via Google Images or TinEye) to see where the image first appeared.
- Video verification: Use tools like InVID or Amnesty YouTube DataViewer to check when a video was uploaded and if it’s been reused from another event.
- Look for AI-generated artifacts: Pay attention to warped text, inconsistent lighting, mismatched reflections, or unnatural facial features.

4. Check Dates and Context

Sometimes real images or stories are shared out of context — for example, an old photo presented as breaking news.

Look for:
- Dates on the article or post.
- Event details that can be checked (location, weather, people involved).

Time-sensitive language like “breaking,” “just happened,” or “urgent” — which might signal manipulation.


5. Consult Fact-Checking Organizations

Independent fact-checkers exist specifically to verify claims:
- Snopes
- PolitiFact
- Reuters Fact Check
- AP Fact Check
- AFP Fact Check

They often debunk viral misinformation within hours or days of it spreading.


6. Use Digital Verification Tools

Some free, reliable ones:
- Google Fact Check Explorer – searches across known fact-checks.
- Botometer – analyzes if a Twitter/X account might be automated.
- Whois Lookup – finds who registered a website and when.
- NewsGuard – browser extension rating website credibility.


7. Reflect Before You Share

Even if something feels true, pause before reposting. Ask:

- “Would I believe this if it didn’t confirm what I already think?”
- That moment of reflection can stop misinformation from spreading further.

The Secret Life of an Internet Troll

A few questions about online troll farms

All generated by ChatGPT

- What is an online troll farm?

- How pervasive are online trolls?

- How are online troll farms used to influence politics?

- Provide a list of prominent political trolling operations.

- How much does a professional troll farms charge for its services?

The Rise of Stalin: The Desk Job That Built a Dictator

Some helpful advice in case you want to take over the world. 

How do you do it?

Good idea?

- What US laws grant such ownership?

- What state laws grant such ownership?

- What Texas laws grant such ownership?

 

This is another Zeal. Or may a Sebra?

 

- Who owns the content created by generative AI? 

From ChatGPT: What are political norms?

Political norms are the unwritten rules and expectations that guide how political actors—such as government officials, parties, and citizens—are supposed to behave within a political system.

While laws are formally written and enforceable, norms are informal but still powerful because they shape acceptable conduct and maintain stability in political institutions.


Key Characteristics of Political Norms:
- Unwritten: They are not part of formal legal codes.
- Shared Expectations: They reflect a common understanding of appropriate behavior.
- Enforced by Reputation and Pressure: Violating norms can lead to loss of trust, credibility, or political support.
- Evolve Over Time: Norms can change as political culture and society change.


Examples of Political Norms:
- Respect for election results: Politicians are expected to accept legitimate election outcomes.
- Peaceful transfer of power: Outgoing leaders peacefully hand over authority to incoming ones.
- Checks and balances: Leaders generally respect the independence of other branches of government.
- Civility and compromise: Lawmakers are expected to negotiate and cooperate across party lines.
- Avoiding misuse of power: Leaders avoid using state institutions (like courts or police) for personal or partisan gain.


Why Political Norms Matter:
- Political norms support democracy by promoting trust, fairness, and stability. When norms erode, even a system with strong written laws can experience polarization, corruption, or authoritarian behavior.


Some examples of how political norms have changed in recent U.S. politics or globally.


1. Judicial Appointments
- Traditional norm: Presidents consulted senators of both parties and avoided confirming Supreme Court justices close to an election.
-Change: In 2016, the Senate refused to consider President Obama’s nominee (Merrick Garland), citing the upcoming election—but confirmed Justice Amy Coney Barrett just days before the 2020 election.
Impact: Erosion of bipartisan cooperation and trust in the judicial appointment process.


2. Filibuster and Legislative Cooperation
- Traditional norm: Senators used the filibuster sparingly, mainly for issues of deep national significance.
- Change: The filibuster became a routine partisan weapon, blocking most major legislation.
Impact: Increased gridlock and decreased compromise in Congress.


3. Respect for Electoral Outcomes
- Traditional norm: Losing candidates conceded elections promptly and peacefully.
- Change: The refusal by some leaders to accept certified election results after the 2020 U.S. election challenged this norm.
Impact: Weakened public trust in elections and peaceful transfers of power.
4. Presidential Conduct


Traditional norm: Presidents avoided personal attacks on judges, the media, or law enforcement agencies.


Change: Recent presidents have frequently criticized these institutions publicly, questioning their legitimacy.
➡️ Impact: Undermined respect for independent institutions and norms of presidential restraint.

This is a Zeal

 

What is a bot farm?

From AI Overview: 

A bot farm is a large-scale operation that uses a network of automated internet bots to perform online tasks, which can be used for malicious purposes like spreading misinformation and fake reviews, or for more benign tasks like managing customer service. These farms manipulate online content and traffic to create artificial popularity or influence opinions, and they can be employed for advertising fraud, political propaganda, or to boost ratings on app stores and social media platforms.

Uses of bot farms

Spreading misinformation and propaganda: Bot farms, also called "troll farms," can be used by governments or organizations to spread political propaganda, attack critics, and manipulate public opinion, often influencing elections.

Click fraud and advertising manipulation: They can be used to artificially inflate the number of clicks or likes on advertisements, defrauding advertisers. For example, some advertisers claim a significant percentage of their ad clicks are fraudulent.

Artificial popularity and reviews: Bot farms can manipulate positions in online app stores, generate fake positive reviews, and increase fake "likes" or followers on social media to make a product or service seem more popular than it is.

Price scraping and automated trading: Some bots are used for legitimate purposes like automated trading or finding "bargains," but this can also be used for unfair competition.


How bot farms operate

Automated accounts: Bot farms control thousands of automated accounts that can mimic human activity.

Coordinated activity: These accounts often work in a coordinated manner to flood platforms with content, comments, or likes from multiple sources simultaneously.

Infrastructure: They require significant infrastructure, including a large number of devices, IP addresses, and software, to manage the vast number of fake accounts and their activities.


Examples

Russian "web brigades": An example of a coordinated state-sponsored effort that used fake accounts to spread pro-Russian content during the Russo-Ukrainian War.

Fake likes: A case where a company's product was found to have thousands of fake Facebook likes added by a "click farm".

Betting and trading bots: A betting exchange company, Betfair, saw a large volume of bot traffic and created an API for bots to interact with its system, acknowledging the role bots play in its market.

 https://www.nytimes.com/2025/10/26/technology/cal-state-ai-amazon-openai.html?smid=nytcore-ios-share&referringSource=articleShare

Dear ChatGPT: What factors drive public opinion formation?

Public opinion formation is shaped by a combination of psychological, social, and informational factors.

Here are the main drivers:


1. Political Socialization

Definition: The lifelong process through which individuals acquire political beliefs and values.
Key Influences:
- Family: Often the strongest early influence.
- Schools: Teach civic knowledge and democratic values.
- Peers: Reinforce or challenge existing views.
- Religious institutions: Shape moral and social attitudes that influence political opinions.


2. Media Influence

- Agenda-setting: Media determines which issues are considered important.
- Framing: The way issues are presented affects how people interpret them.
- Priming: Media coverage influences which criteria people use to evaluate leaders or policies.
- Social media: Allows for rapid spread of information and misinformation, shaping perceptions.


3. Group Identity

- Race, ethnicity, gender, religion, and class all influence perspectives on policy and politics.
- People often align their opinions with the groups they identify with (known as group solidarity).


4. Partisanship and Ideology
- Party identification is one of the strongest predictors of opinions on political issues.
- Political ideology (liberal, conservative, etc.) provides a consistent framework for interpreting new information.


5. Political Leaders and Elites
- Public figures and opinion leaders (politicians, activists, commentators) shape views through persuasion and cue-giving — people take cues from trusted figures within their ideological camp.


6. Events and Experiences

- Major events — such as wars, economic crises, pandemics, or social movements — can rapidly reshape public opinion.
- Personal experiences with government (e.g., taxes, education, policing) can reinforce or challenge beliefs.


7. Education and Information

- Higher education levels are often linked to greater political awareness and more stable opinions.
- The quality and diversity of information sources affect how well citizens can evaluate political issues.


8. Cultural and Historical Context

- Long-standing cultural traditions, regional differences, and national history frame how issues are understood (for example, attitudes toward individualism, government authority, or freedom).

10.27.2025

- What is tyranny of the majority?

- What is a chronic minority?

- Brutus No. 1 (1787).

- Federalist 10.

- What solution does Federalist 10 offer for tyranny of the majority?

- What are the challenges to group formation?

Four nations with limited access to open waters

Compare these with the US