On This Day in History (ok this was originally flagged November 18) 1883: Railroads create the first time zones

This is from History.com and it touches on points I like to make in class about the interrelationship between business and the national government in the expansion of the nation, as well as the expansion of the authority of the national government. The setting of time seems to have been primarily a local matter until technological change (faster transportation) made it necessary for localities to yield this power.

Railroad companies instigated the change, which were then adopted by many state legislatures. It would later be made legal by the national government - most likely under the constitutional authority of the interstate commerce clause, though I've yet to see that stated clearly anywhere. As you'll see below, the power to oversee was given to the Interstate Commerce Commission. That's a give away.

- Click here for the article.

The need for continental time zones stemmed directly from the problems of moving passengers and freight over the thousands of miles of rail line that covered North America by the 1880s. Since human beings had first begun keeping track of time, they set their clocks to the local movement of the sun. Even as late as the 1880s, most towns in the U.S. had their own local time, generally based on “high noon,” or the time when the sun was at its highest point in the sky. As railroads began to shrink the travel time between cities from days or months to mere hours, however, these local times became a scheduling nightmare. Railroad timetables in major cities listed dozens of different arrival and departure times for the same train, each linked to a different local time zone.

Efficient rail transportation demanded a more uniform time-keeping system. Rather than turning to the federal governments of the United States and Canada to create a North American system of time zones, the powerful railroad companies took it upon themselves to create a new time code system. The companies agreed to divide the continent into four time zones; the dividing lines adopted were very close to the ones we still use today.

Most Americans and Canadians quickly embraced their new time zones, since railroads were often their lifeblood and main link with the rest of the world. However, it was not until 1918 that Congress officially adopted the railroad time zones and put them under the supervision of the Interstate Commerce Commission.

The law referenced above was the Standard Time Act of 1918, which was passed during the 65th Session of Congress after being introduced by Senator William Calder, a Republican from New York. This was the Congress responsible for declaring war on Germany. Not surprisingly the bulk of the laws passed by Congress were related to WWI. The creation of a uniform time system - along with the more controversial daylight saving provision, was considered key to the wear effort. The uniformity was far less controversial that the daylight savings component.

The 65th Congress also passed the Child Labor Act of 1919, which would be found unconstitutional in the case of Bailey v. Drexel Furniture. The law placed an excise tax on the profits of companies that employed children. The Supreme Court ruled the tax was really a penalty, which was unconstitutional. The court has since argued that this process is in fact constitutional. Time zones in the United States are currently regulated by the system put in place by the Uniform Time Act, which was passed in 1966 by the 89th Congress.

For a look at the language in the U.S. Code that relate to time zones, click here:

- 15 U.S. Code Sec. 261: Zones for standard time; interstate or foreign commerce.

For more on the Interstate Commerce Commission, which originally implemented the law, click here:

- Wikipedia: Interstate Commerce Commission.

The ICC was the first independent agency established by Congress. It exists outside the tradition executive departments, which gives it greater autonomy from the president. The ICC's jurisdiction expanded considerably over its history. It began with regulating railroads and would eventually also regulate trucking, telephone, telegraph, and wireless companies. It was commonly argued to have been captured by the railroad companies, meaning that its regulations served to enhance - not limit - the power of railroads.

It is one of the few executive agencies that have ever been terminated. This was done in the ICC Termination Act of 1995 which was passed by the 104th Congress (the Contract With American Congress) and signed by President Clinton. Its functions were shifted to the newly created Surface Transportation Board, an agency within the Department of Transportation. This includes the implementation of policies related to time zones. For detail on the purpose of the shift, click here to read President Clinton's Statement on Signing the ICC Termination Act of 1995.

From Vox: How America became a superpower, explained in 8 minutes

A great, great video. Something here for both 2305 and 2306. Foreign policy for the former - westward expansion for the latter.

- Click here for it.

From Vox: How America became the most powerful country on Earth, in 11 maps

For our look at foreign policy making. The US took specific - and highly aggressive - steps over the course of its history to become dominant.

- Click here for the article.

Here's one image:




And here's another:

From the Houston Chronicle: Long road ahead for Old Spanish Trail centennial

For historical context we've been looking at the development of the United States westward - which included getting rid of Spanish, French, British, and Mexican claims to the land. While the west - along with the Gulf Coast and Florida - was sparsely populated under Spanish control a road connected San Diego and San Augustine, Florida. It was called Old Spanish Trail and it would later form the basis for  a network of highways and Main Streets almost 100 years ago.

As the centennial approaches, some groups would like to celebrate it by reviving the road - or at least signage designating it. The development of highways - along with all types of transportation means - has been central to economic expansion.

- Click here for the article.

By 1925, when a travel guide for the route was published and leadership of the Old Spanish Trail Association was in San Antonio, Houston was a major destination. The Rice Hotel boasted "the finest cafeteria in the south," other lodging was available in fireproof facilities - a closely watched offering then - and Hermann Park could host up to 1,000 cars.

"Travel was expensive," Kahl said. "There were tourist camps before motels and motor courts. You camped out."

Travel also took much longer. Speed limits, not to mention automotive capabilities for safe travel, put top speeds at about 20 mph - even less in cities. Some paved roads were not exactly smooth, often made from crushed local materials. Rocks and shells taken from Oyster Creek in Sugar Land likely ended up in many East Texas road projects.

Drivers had a more hands-on approach to their maintenance needs. Automobiles and trucks of the time required personal care. Roadside assistance wasn't yet a thing. Tires were especially unpredictable.

"Drivers would carry patch kits like you would for bicycles," Kahl said.
Tourism was only a part of the impetus for the Old Spanish Trail. Movement of goods played a large role as well.

Businesses that made products in Pensacola or New Orleans wanted reliable ways to get raw materials from Georgia or Texas. Farmers in East Texas needed a way to get their crops to markets in San Antonio, and not everything was worth shipping in large rail bulks.

Trucking could fill in the gaps if routes were paved and reliable. Those routes became the first iteration of the interstate system, in part devised by Gen. John J. Pershing, commander of U.S. Forces in World War I, who envisioned a national network for military movement. Another general, Dwight D. Eisenhower eventually made the interstate map a reality.

Moving goods required wider roads, often outside downtown areas. Old Spanish Trail was moved to swing around Houston's growing urban core, using what had been called the "Old Spanish Trail cutoff" in 1935. The detour, sometime after 1935, led to the current U.S. 90 Alternate, the road now called Old Spanish Trail and the proliferation of motels along the highway.

From the Miller Center: John Tyler: Foreign Affairs

This gives us a glimpse at foreign policy in the 1840s.

Tyler's presidency is largely ignored, but he was in office during a period of time when the primary objective of the nation was to occupy North America as quickly as possible. This brief appraisal of his presidency argues that his foreign policy achievements were far more significant than his domestic policies. Not the attention he gives to China.

- Click here for the link.

In sharp contrast to his domestic policies, John Tyler's foreign policy decision making went much more smoothly. Recognizing the coming importance of the Asian Pacific region to trade, he sent a key diplomatic mission to China. This move resulted in commercial and consular relations with the country, giving the U.S. the same trading concessions as the British. Tyler also extended the principles of the Monroe Doctrine to Hawaii, warned the British to stay away from the Hawaiian Islands, and began the process toward their eventual annexation by America.

Closer to home, the Webster-Ashburton treaty of 1842, negotiated by Secretary of State Daniel Webster, settled a longtime feud with England over where Maine ended and British-ruled Canada began. War had narrowly been averted between the two nations on several occasions over border and incursion issues, and the treaty was instrumental in bettering diplomatic relations.

With respect to his policies toward Native Americans, Tyler ended a costly and bloody war against the Seminole Indians. After defrauding the Indians of their remaining lands in 1833, the U.S. had waged a bloody but inconclusive war against Chief Osceloa. Tyler was able to announce the end of hostilities in 1842.

Tyler continued his predecessors' expansionist policies in the Northwest. He pushed for a chain of forts from Council Bluffs, Iowa, to the Pacific but was unable to conclude a treaty with the British to fix the Oregon boundaries. Overall, Tyler could claim an ambitious, successful foreign policy presidency, due largely to the efforts of Secretary of State Webster, who served from 1841 to 1843.

Introducing the once proud Republic of West Florida

The story is in Vox.

- Click here for it.

From the Bureau of Land Management: The Manual of Surveying Instructions

I was surfing around looking for info to add to the stories about the Texas General Land Office and came across the following sentence in the TSHA's page on the office:

Texas is the only public-land state with complete control over its public lands and over the proceeds resulting from the administration and sale of lands.

I was curious about what the the term public land state referred to and the following link to the Bureau of Land Management's manual of surveying instructions popped up.

- Click here for it.

It doesn't mention Texas, but it does provide thumbnail info about how the lands for 30 state were acquired and where the official records related to the land acquisition are held. Here are a few samples related to Texas:

Colorado. Acquired largely under the Louisiana Purchase in 1808, but including additional land, title to which was quieted through treaty with Spain, in 1819, with other lands annexed with Texas in 1845, and lands ceded by Mexico in 1848; admitted into the Union August 1, 1876 (18 Stat. 474; 19 Stat. 665); records in the State Office of the Bureau of Land Management in Denver.

New Mexico. Included in the lands annexed with Texas in 1845, with lands ceded by Mexico in 1848, and the Gadsden Purchase in 1853; admitted into the Union January 6, 1912 (36 Stat. 557, 37 Stat. 1723); records in the State Office of the Bureau of Land Management at Santa Fe.

Wyoming. Included with lands acquired under the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, with lands annexed with Texas in 1845, with lands included in the Oregon Territory, title to which was established in 1846, and with lands ceded by Mexico in 1848; admitted into the Union July 10, 1890 (26 Stat. 222); records in the State Office of the Bureau of Land Management at Cheyenne.

For a link to the entire document click here.

For the Bureau of Land Management click here.

And here's the BLM's Wikipedia Page.

In a previous post I pointed out that the national government owns all of the land in red below:

This Day in National History: Lewis and Clark help form Missouri Fur Company

OK, this was actually for yesterday.

I've been interested recently in the interplay between the activities of the national government and business in the expansion of the nation westward. The Jefferson Administration was not only responsible for the Louisiana Purchase - and the Mississippi River system - but also early effort to explore it as well as lands all the way to the Pacific.

This story points out that Lewis and Clark - the men responsible for mapping out the land to the west, were also involved in developing ways to exploit it commercially. It involved the fur trade - which was to early America what the oil industry is now. There's lot's more to this story, but this is is pretty sweet in my opinion. It supports the idea that the design of the government established in the Constitution helped further the development of commercial interests in the nation.

- Click here for the article in history.com.

In September 1806, William Clark and Meriwether Lewis completed their epic journey to the Pacific Ocean, arriving back in St. Louis after more than two years in the western wilderness. Except for the difficult crossing of the Rocky Mountains, the expedition team had traveled by river. On the journey, they were overwhelmed by the abundance for beaver, otter, and other fur-bearing creatures they saw. The territory was ripe for fur trapping, they reported to President Thomas Jefferson.

Both Lewis and Clark recognized that sizeable fortunes could be made in fur trapping, and they were not averse to using their exclusive knowledge to gain a share of the profits. Two years after their return, Lewis and Clark helped organize the St. Louis Missouri River Fur Company. Among their partners were the experienced fur traders and businessmen Manuel Lisa, Pierre Choteau, and Auguste Choteau.

Lewis, whom Jefferson had already appointed to the governorship of Louisiana Territory, was presumably a silent partner, and for good reason. The new company planned to mix public and private interests in potentially unethical ways. During their earlier voyage west, Lewis and Clark had convinced an Upper-Missouri River Mandan Indian named Big White to go east and meet President Jefferson. Lewis had promised Big White that the American government would later return him to his people. Now the St. Louis Missouri River Fur Company proposed to use public money to mount a private expedition to take Big White home in the spring of 1809. Once Big White was home safely, however, the expedition would continue on to begin fur trading on the Yellowstone River, where it would enjoy a monopoly guaranteed by Governor Lewis.

In May 1809, the hybrid public-private expedition headed up the Missouri River. The men safely returned Big White to his home and inaugurated a fairly successful fur trading operation. Whatever questions there might have been about Governor Lewis’ conflicting interests in the company soon became moot: He either killed himself or was murdered on October 11, 1809, while traveling on the Natchez Trace in Tennessee. Clark continued to be involved with the company for several years, and no one ever raised questions about the ethics of his participation. Standards of behavior were often lax on the frontier, and it was not unusual for private and governmental interests to become confused. For all but the most critical observer, Clark’s actions would have been acceptable. The St. Louis Missouri River Fur Company the two men helped create endured until 1825 and was instrumental in furthering the exploration and settlement of the Far West.

On a related note, a movie is about to be released documenting some of the exploits of this period.

- Wikiepdia: The Revenant.
- Wikipedia: Hugh Glass.

America's Territorial Expansion Mapped (1789-2014)

Territorial History of the USA: Every Month for 400 Years

For our look at counties in 2306.

For more, click here.

From Foreign Policy: How Geography Explains the United States

This isn't exactly a new observation, but its worth both repeating and clarifying. The author points out that the United States' unique geography - especially the fact that it borders two major oceans and has had more or less peaceful relations with its bordering nations - explains the world view of its citizens, as well as its history.

The United States is the only great power in the history of the world that has had the luxury of having nonpredatory neighbors to its north and south, and fish to its east and west. The two oceans to either side of the country are what historian Thomas Bailey brilliantly described as its liquid assets.

Canadians, Mexicans, and fish. That trio of neighbors has given the United States an unprecedented degree of security, a huge margin for error in international affairs, and the luxury of largely unfettered development.

Those last two points are huge: we have had a margin for error in foreign affairs (we could make mistakes and get away with it) and develop ourselves without worrying about attacks. But it has lead to a worldview the author claims is unrealistic. We are pragmatic, idealistic, arrogant and ambivalent, and we can be all that because we can make decisions without worrying about immediate repercussions - because of our unique geography. But it means that we can not always understand - or appreciate - what motivates other countries - which can lead to mistakes.

U.S. nationalism was defined politically, not ethnically. Anyone can be an American, regardless of color, creed, or religion. America's public square has become an inclusive one -- and is becoming more so, not less. That's all good news, but too often, it leads Americans to see the world on their terms and not the way it really is.

Just look at America's recent foreign-policy misadventures. Americans' mistaken belief that post-invasion Iraq would be a place where Sunnis, Shiites, and Kurds would somehow look to the future to build a new nation reflected this tendency. It's the same story with the Arab Spring: From the beginning, America seemed determined to impose its own upbeat Hollywood ending on a movie that was only just getting started and would become much darker than imagined. The notion that what was happening in Egypt was a transformative event that would turn the country over to the secular liberals powered by Facebook and Twitter was truly an American conceit.

Since we are prepping for the finals, I took note of this bit that suggests that our isolated geography allowed us to carefully draft and discuss our constitutional order. Other countries have not had that luxury.

Sure, it was America's unique political system that forced compromise and practicality. But we shouldn't kid ourselves: The United States' success was made possible by a remarkable margin of security provided by two vast oceans, which allowed Americans the time and space to work on their union largely freed from constant external threats and crises.

Other countries have not been so lucky. It's fascinating to observe, for example, that Israel has no written constitution. Instead, it has a series of "basic laws" that have evolved over time. Why? The Israelis could not devote the time or risk the divisions that might have resulted from debating core issues when they were struggling to preserve their independence. These core questions -- such as those about the religious character of the state and the role of Arab citizens -- remain largely unresolved to this day.

Although the U.S. political system failed to resolve the problem of slavery without a civil war, the United States did manage to make it through that war as a united country. Location had much to do with this: You can only imagine America's fate had it been surrounded by hostile neighbors eager to take advantage of years of bloody war.

Maybe this helps explain Texas' 50 year struggle to find the right constitutional system - one that we continue to tinker with to this day.

Road Trip

I've just finished a road trip on Route 66 from Ludlow, California to Tulsa, Oklahoma and will start the regular postings soon. The civility papers--for my 16 week classes--will be graded beginning next week. We will also start discussing the next paper assignment--the one on Plutarch's Lives--after the next round of quizzes are over.

The development and demise of Route 66 provides an interesting case study of the impact of technology on the relationship between the national and state and local governments. It evolved slowly after each separate state and city along the route developed independent roads in response to the increase popularity of automobiles. Eventually policy entrepreneurs, Cyrus Avery among others, began to organize in order to connect these roads so that people could more easily travel west.

Technology at this point advantaged smaller towns which were able to provide services to travellers, but additional technological developments, in addition to Eisenhower's push to develop an interstate highway system, allowed these towns to be bypassed. Route 66's development evolved because the federal government was able to facilitate a cooperative relationship between the states. Its demise occurred because the federal government was able to impose itself on the states.

What remains is a fascinating time capsule of life as lived in the 30s, 40s, and 50s.