Tuesday, April 12, 2022

From Wikipedia: Freedom suit

- Click here for the article.  

Freedom suits were lawsuits in the Thirteen Colonies and the United States filed by slaves against slaveholders to assert claims to freedom, often based on descent from a free maternal ancestor, or time held as a resident in a free state or territory.

The right to petition for freedom descended from English common law and allowed people to challenge their enslavement or indenture. Petitioners challenged slavery both directly and indirectly, even if slaveholders generally viewed such petitions as a means to uphold rather than undermine slavery. Beginning with the colonies in North America, legislatures enacted slave laws that created a legal basis for "just subjection;" these were adopted or updated by the state and territorial legislatures that superseded them after the United States gained independence. These codes also enabled enslaved persons to sue for freedom based on wrongful enslavement.

While some cases were tried during the colonial period, the majority of petitions for freedom were heard during the antebellum period in the border or the Southern United States. After the American Revolution, most northern states abolished slavery and were considered "free". The United States Congress prohibited slavery in some newly established territories, and some new states were admitted to the union as free states. The rise in travel and migration of masters with slaves between free and slave states resulted in conditions that gave rise to slaves suing for freedom. Many free states had residency limits for masters who brought slaves into their territory; after that time, the slave would be considered free. Some slaves sued for wrongful enslavement after being held in a free state.

Other grounds for suit were that the person was freeborn and illegally held in slavery, or that the person was illegally held because of being descended from a freeborn woman in the maternal line. The principle of partus sequitur ventrem, first incorporated into Virginian law by a 1662 statute in the House of Burgesses, established that children's status was that of the mother. It was also adopted into law by all of the Southern colonies, and later the slave states of the United States.

The Jefferson Grid






http://www.core77.com/reactor/undesigningamerica.asp

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Land_Survey_System




Covid 19's impact on Social Security funding

https://budgetmodel.wharton.upenn.edu/issues/2020/5/28/social-security-finances-coronavirus

https://www.npr.org/2021/09/01/1033151631/a-new-report-says-the-covid-recession-has-pushed-social-security-insolvency-up-a

https://www.investopedia.com/the-pandemic-impact-of-social-security-and-medicare-5186940#:~:text=Impact%20of%20COVID%2D19%20Legislation%20on%20Social%20Security&text=Reduced%20Federal%20Insurance%20Contributions%20Act,the%20delay%20(CARES%20Act)11

Indentured Servitude

From Wikipedia: An act concerning Servants and Slaves

- Click here for the entry. 

The Virginia Slave Codes of 1705 (formally entitled An act concerning Servants and Slaves), was a series of laws enacted by the Colony of Virginia's House of Burgesses in 1705 regulating the interactions between slaves and citizens of the crown colony of Virginia. The enactment of the Slave Codes is considered to be the consolidation of slavery in Virginia, and served as the foundation of Virginia's slave legislation.

- These codes effectively embedded the idea of slavery into law by the following devices:
- Established new property rights for slave owners
- Allowed for the legal, free trade of slaves with protections granted by the courts
- Established separate courts of trial
- Prohibited slaves from going armed, without written permission
- Whites could not be employed by any blacks
- Allowed for the apprehension of suspected runaways

History of the U.S. Postal Inspection Service

Links 4/7

https://www.texastribune.org/2022/04/07/texas-rural-water-projects-swift/

https://www.sunset.texas.gov/reviews-and-reports/agencies/texas-water-development-board

chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/viewer.html?pdfurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.twdb.texas.gov%2Fpublications%2Freports%2Fspecial_legislative_reports%2Fdoc%2F2020_SWIFT.pdf&clen=4299492&chunk=true

chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/viewer.html?pdfurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sunset.texas.gov%2Fpublic%2Fuploads%2F2022-04%2FTexas%2520Water%2520Development%2520Board%2520Staff%2520Report_3-30-22.pdf&clen=3209627&chunk=true

https://tarlton.law.utexas.edu/c.php?g=815580&p=5820525

https://www.crf-usa.org/brown-v-board-50th-anniversary/southern-black-codes.html

https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/1866-texas-black-codes/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Festivus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_crime_in_the_United_States

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_law_of_the_United_States


Links - 4/12

https://statutes.capitol.texas.gov/Docs/CN/htm/CN.1.htm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inchoate_offense

https://networks.h-net.org/node/5301/pages/1030420/timeline-federal-history

https://www.specialagents.org/which-is-truly-the-oldest-federal-agency

https://www.usmarshals.gov/history/oldest.htm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netscape_Navigator#History_and_development

https://www.gocoastguard.com/about-the-coast-guard/learn-the-history

https://www.tdi.texas.gov/fire/

https://www.tcfp.texas.gov/about/texas-fire-service

https://www.texastribune.org/2022/04/05/texas-border-mission-budget/

Monday, April 11, 2022

From the Texas Tribune: After pursuing an indictment, Starr County district attorney drops murder charge over self-induced abortion

A possible reaction to negative public opinion. 

- Click here for the article.

After charging a woman with murder over a self-induced abortion, forcing her to spend three days in jail and drawing national attention, Starr County officials announced Sunday they would change course and move to dismiss the case.

Lizelle Herrera was arrested Thursday and held in jail on a $500,000 bond, court records show. She was released on bail Saturday, according to jail records and a local abortion fund. The district attorney had presented the possible murder charge to a grand jury last month, leading to her indictment and arrest, before his Sunday announcement.

“In reviewing applicable Texas law, it is clear that Ms. Herrera cannot and should not be prosecuted for the allegation against her,” Gocha Allen Ramirez, the district attorney in Starr County, said in a news release.



Few details on the case have been made public, including how the abortion was performed and how far along the pregnancy had been. Ramirez’s news release said a hospital reported the January abortion to the Starr County Sheriff’s Department, prompting the criminal investigation and murder indictment.

Demonstrators protested outside Starr County Jail on Saturday against the arrest of Lizelle Herrera. Credit: Michael Gonzalez For The Texas Tribune

It’s also unclear under which statute Herrera was charged. Texas law exempts a pregnant person from being charged with murder or any lesser homicide charge for an abortion. The pregnant person is also typically excluded from lesser criminal charges if abortion laws are broken, as state laws instead target the provider.

“For pregnant people, the rule in the state of Texas has essentially always been, since the beginning of criminalization of abortion, that the pregnant person can not be prosecuted,” said Elizabeth Sepper, a law professor at the University of Texas at Austin.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starr_County,_Texas




Links - 4/11

https://www.washingtonpost.com/dc-md-va/2022/04/07/federal-agents-impersonators-secret-service/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Postal_Inspection_Service

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_enforcement_agency

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_federal_executive_departments#Former_departments

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Post_Office_Department

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_fraud_prevention


Mid-term loss

https://rollcall.com/2022/04/11/texas-election-is-gops-chance-to-prove-how-midterm-winds-are-blowing/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_midterm_election

https://www.vox.com/22899204/midterm-elections-president-biden-thermostatic-opinion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas%27s_34th_congressional_district

https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/vitalstats_ch2_tbl4.pdf


From Wikipedia: First Families of Virginia

The birth of hierarchy and aristocracy in what would become the United States. 

- Click here for the entry.

First Families of Virginia (FFV) were those families in Colonial Virginia who were socially prominent and wealthy, but not necessarily the earliest settlers.[1] They descended from English colonists who primarily settled at Jamestown, Williamsburg, The Northern Neck and along the James River and other navigable waters in Virginia during the 17th century. These elite families generally married within their social class for many generations and, as a result, most surnames of First Families date to the colonial period.

The American Revolution cut ties with Britain but not with its social traditions. While some First Family members were loyal to Britain, others were Whigs who not only supported, but led the Revolution.[2] Most First Families remained in Virginia, where they flourished as tobacco planters, and from the sale of slaves to the cotton states to the south. Indeed, many younger sons were relocated into the cotton belt to start their own plantations. With the emancipation of slavery during the Civil War and the consequential loss of slave labor, Virginia plantations struggled to turn a profit. The First Families, albeit poorer than before, maintained social and political leadership. Marshall Fishwick says that by the 1950s, "the old-time aristocracy [had] not given up, or sunk into decadence as Southern novelists suggest." They adopted modern agricultural technology and co-opted rich "Yankees" into their upper-class, rural horse-estate society.

From the Library of Congress: Virginia Records Timeline: 1553 to 1743

To help set up our look at civil rights policy.

- Click here here for it. 

From Wikipedia: Authoritarianism

Generally tied in with oligarchy.

- Click here for the entry. 

Authoritarianism is a form of government characterized by the rejection of political plurality, the use of strong central power to preserve the political status quo, and reductions in the rule of law, separation of powers, and democratic voting.[1] Political scientists have created many typologies describing variations of authoritarian forms of government.[1] Authoritarian regimes may be either autocratic or oligarchic and may be based upon the rule of a party or the military.

In an influential 1964 work,[4] the political scientist Juan Linz defined authoritarianism as possessing four qualities:

1 - Limited political pluralism, is realized with constraints on the legislature, political parties and interest groups.

2 - Political legitimacy is based upon appeals to emotion and identification of the regime as a necessary evil to combat "easily recognizable societal problems, such as underdevelopment or insurgency."

3 - Minimal political mobilization, and suppression of anti-regime activities.

4 - Ill-defined executive powers, often vague and shifting extends the power of the executive.

Minimally defined, an authoritarian government lacks free and competitive direct elections to legislatures, free and competitive direct or indirect elections for executives, or both.[7] Broadly defined, authoritarian states include countries that lack civil liberties such as freedom of religion, or countries in which the government and the opposition do not alternate in power at least once following free elections.[8] Authoritarian states might contain nominally democratic institutions such as political parties, legislatures and elections which are managed to entrench authoritarian rule and can feature fraudulent, non-competitive elections.[9] Since 1946, the share of authoritarian states in the international political system increased until the mid-1970s but declined from then until the year 2000.

Authoritarianism is characterized by highly concentrated and centralized government power maintained by political repression and the exclusion of potential challengers. It uses political parties and mass organizations to mobilize people around the goals of the regime.[11] Adam Przeworski has theorized that "authoritarian equilibrium rests mainly on lies, fear and economic prosperity."

From Wikipedia: Hierarchy

What some argue is a natural state in government. Only certain people are meant to rule.

- Click here for the entry. 

A hierarchy (from Greek: ἱεραρχία, hierarkhia, 'rule of a high priest', from hierarkhes, 'president of sacred rites') is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) that are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, architecture, design, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, systematic biology, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).

A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy.

- Click here for Oligarchy.

Oligarchy (from Greek ὀλιγαρχία (oligarkhía); from ὀλίγος (olígos) 'few', and ἄρχω (arkho) 'to rule or to command')[1][2][3] is a form of power structure in which power rests with a small number of people. These people may or may not be distinguished by one or several characteristics, such as nobility, fame, wealth, education, or corporate, religious, political, or military control.

Throughout history, oligarchies have often been tyrannical, relying on public obedience or oppression to exist. Aristotle pioneered the use of the term as meaning rule by the rich,[4] for which another term commonly used today is plutocracy. In the early 20th century Robert Michels developed the theory that democracies, like all large organizations, tend to turn into oligarchies. In his "Iron law of oligarchy" he suggests that the necessary division of labor in large organizations leads to the establishment of a ruling class mostly concerned with protecting their own power..

Sunday, April 10, 2022

From Wikipedia: Case Law

An alternative source of public policy.

- Click here for the entry on case law. 

Case law, also used interchangeably with common law, is law that is based on precedents, that is the judicial decisions from previous cases, rather than law based on constitutions, statutes, or regulations. Case law uses the detailed facts of a case that have been resolved by courts or similar tribunals. These past decisions are called "case law", or precedent. Stare decisis—a Latin phrase meaning "let the decision stand"—is the principle by which judges are bound to such past decisions, drawing on established judicial authority to formulate their positions.

These judicial interpretations are distinguished from statutory law, which are codes enacted by legislative bodies, and regulatory law, which are established by executive agencies based on statutes. In some jurisdictions, case law can be applied to ongoing adjudication; for example, criminal proceedings or family law.

In common law countries (including the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand), it is used for judicial decisions of selected appellate courts, courts of first instance, agency tribunals, and other bodies discharging adjudicatory functions.


- Click here for the entry on common law.

In law, common law (also known as judicial precedent or judge-made law, or case law) is the body of law created by judges and similar quasi-judicial tribunals by virtue of being stated in written opinions.[2][3][4] The defining characteristic of “common law” is that it arises as precedent. In cases where the parties disagree on what the law is, a common law court looks to past precedential decisions of relevant courts, and synthesizes the principles of those past cases as applicable to the current facts. If a similar dispute has been resolved in the past, the court is usually bound to follow the reasoning used in the prior decision (a principle known as stare decisis). If, however, the court finds that the current dispute is fundamentally distinct from all previous cases (called a "matter of first impression"), and legislative statutes are either silent or ambiguous on the question, judges have the authority and duty to resolve the issue (one party or the other has to win, and on disagreements of law, judges make that decision).[5] The court states an opinion that gives reasons for the decision, and those reasons agglomerate with past decisions as precedent to bind future judges and litigants. Common law, as the body of law made by judges,[4][6] stands in contrast to and on equal footing with statutes which are adopted through the legislative process, and regulations which are promulgated by the executive branch (the interactions among these different sources of law are explained later in this article). Stare decisis, the principle that cases should be decided according to consistent principled rules so that similar facts will yield similar results, lies at the heart of all common law systems.[7]

The common law—so named because it was "common" to all the king's courts across England—originated in the practices of the courts of the English kings in the centuries following the Norman Conquest in 1066.[8] The British Empire later spread the English legal system to its far flung colonies, many of which retain the common law system today. These "common law systems" are legal systems that give great weight to judicial precedent, and to the style of reasoning inherited from the English legal system.

Federalism and Public Policy

For our look at public policy, a reminder about where to look for the basic functions of each level of government.

National Powers: 

U.S. Constitution: Article 1, Section 8.
U.S. Constitution: Article 2, Section 2.
U.S. Constitution: Article 3, Section 2.
U.S. Code.
U.S. Executive Agencies
House Committees
Senate Committees

State Powers: 

U.S. Constitution: Article 1, Section 4.
U.S. Constitution: Article 1, Section 10. (prohibited powers)
Texas Constitution
Texas Statutory Code
Texas Fiscal Size-Up
Texas Sunset Review Commission
Texas House Committees
Texas Senate Committees

Local Powers

Texas Constitution Articles 9 and 11
Texas Local Government Code
Texas Constitution Article 3, Section 56 (limits on states)
Codes of Ordinances

Friday, April 8, 2022

Stupid Questions - GOVT 2305 SCH2

I think the most confusing thing for me is just all the laws that were set back then were kind of different . I gotta remember that some of them are different from what they are today.

Should the collective or majority of population be able to do whatever it wants to the individual? How can we make our government more diverse, more structured, and less corrupt and singled minded?

Okay here is my stupid. Who started the government and said that it should be run the way it is? Like it seems so odd that this whole government just started and someone became in change for whatever reason. So how did the government form and who was the person that lead the building of the government?

Stupid Question:

· Who invents words and how do they get them validated?

· What makes a person “free” in this world?

Most confused on:

· The most confusing part of this course for me has probably been understanding how and why our government is set up and how it functions. By this I mean, like the different divisions, leaders, governments, and terminology function together. It’s a lot of details but I know there is a system.

- The supreme Court cases and how it works. I am totally confused especially about our last written assignment #8

For a stupid question: How many times do you think you've sneezed in your lifetime?

And the most confusing thing about the subject matter is the different documents I need to keep up with. These historical documents provide context for the entire class, so there would inevitably be many documents that validate our circumstances or the past conditions of the United States government. Since all of them have to do with Government, I can sometimes confuse them with other historical documents.
I honestly dont have a question I, for the most part, understand what's happening I do wanna the taxes assignment where we file our taxes together that would be cool and useful.

Do you like my class? Did you know the earth is round? Are you sure you are actually a teacher ? honestly I don’t really find anything very confusing in your class at this moment.

From Open Secrets: Dark Money Process

- Click here for it.

From the House Committee on Oversight and Reform: Free Speech Under Attack: Book Bans and Academic Censorship

- Click here for it. 

Book challenges and bans are rising at unprecedented rates, with ideologically motivated organizations and legislators in Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Texas, Indiana, and other states leading campaigns to remove books from schools and public libraries. In 2021, the American Library Association (ALA) recorded 729 challenges to remove nearly 1,600 books from school and public libraries—the highest number of attempted book bans in the 20 years that the ALA has tracked this data. Meanwhile, some school administrators are preemptively removing library books out of fear.

Books being challenged or banned include those that discuss racial equity, have minorities as protagonists, address LGBTQ+ issues, or have Black or LGBTQ+ authors. Many of these texts help children and young adults to recognize differences and respect the humanity of others rather than to stigmatize and shun people who are different than themselves. However, some right-wing groups and media outlets have pushed false narratives to justify educational censorship aimed at controlling and chilling free speech. These groups assert they are only challenging books that are “divisive” or “indoctrinate” students, but in reality are trying to ban books like Ruby Bridges Goes to School, Beloved, Families, Families, Families!, and Maus.

Studies have shown that not only do students benefit from learning experiences that utilize and highlight diversity, but that removing books about LGBTQ+ experiences from schools further stigmatizes and isolates LGBTQ+ students who are already more likely to suffer depression and consider suicide. These bans are unpopular among most Americans, and three out of every four public-school parents believe that books should be available in school libraries on an age-appropriate basis.

The current efforts to ban books are part of a broader attack on free speech in the classroom that amounts to educational censorship. Combatting these efforts is paramount to protecting the First Amendment rights of students and teachers, and preserving free speech in America.

From Wikipedia: Star Chamber

- Click here for the entry.

The Star Chamber (Latin: Camera stellata) was an English court that sat at the royal Palace of Westminster, from the late 15th century to the mid-17th century (c. 1641), and was composed of Privy Counsellors and common-law judges, to supplement the judicial activities of the common-law and equity courts in civil and criminal matters. The Star Chamber was originally established to ensure the fair enforcement of laws against socially and politically prominent people sufficiently powerful that ordinary courts might hesitate to convict them of their crimes. However, it became synonymous with social and political oppression through the arbitrary use and abuse of the power it wielded.

In modern times, legal or administrative bodies with strict, arbitrary rulings, no "due process" rights to those accused, and secretive proceedings are sometimes called "star chambers" as a metaphor.

From ScotFive-justice majority restores Trump-era policy on water pollution, provoking more criticism of emergency docketublog:

- Click here for the article. 

A divided Supreme Court on Wednesday reinstated a Trump-era environmental policy that makes it harder for states to block projects that may cause water pollution. The unsigned and unexplained decision prompted Chief Justice John Roberts to join the court’s three liberal justices in criticizing the majority’s use of the emergency docket.

The court’s decision “renders the Court’s emergency docket not for emergencies at all,” Justice Elena Kagan wrote in dissent. “The docket becomes only another place for merits determinations — except made without full briefing and argument.”

Roberts joined Kagan’s dissent, as did Justices Stephen Breyer and Sonia Sotomayor .

The case, Louisiana v. American Rivers, involved the role of states in enforcing the Clean Water Act. Under longstanding federal regulations, states can issue or deny permits for projects — such as the construction of new pipelines — that could pollute rivers or streams. But industry groups complained that some states were abusing their permitting authority to stymie projects for reasons that had nothing to do with water quality.

In response to those concerns, the Environmental Protection Administration under the Trump administration issued a regulation in 2020 that curtailed the role of the states in the permitting process. Environmental groups challenged that regulation. While the challenge was pending, President Joe Biden took office, and his administration announced its intent to replace the Trump-era regulation with its own policy.

-
From Wikiedia: Clean Water Act.

Vetoed by Nixon. Veto overridden.

The Clean Water Act (CWA) is the primary federal law in the United States governing water pollution. Its objective is to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's waters; recognizing the responsibilities of the states in addressing pollution and providing assistance to states to do so, including funding for publicly owned treatment works for the improvement of wastewater treatment; and maintaining the integrity of wetlands.[2]

The Clean Water Act was one of the United States' first and most influential modern environmental laws. Its laws and regulations are primarily administered by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in coordination with state governments, though some of its provisions, such as those involving filling or dredging, are administered by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Its implementing regulations are codified at 40 C.F.R. Subchapters D, N, and O (Parts 100-140, 401-471, and 501-503).

From Wikipedia: Shadow docket

Also called the emergency docket.

- Click here for the entry.

The shadow docket is the use of emergency orders and summary decisions by the Supreme Court of the United States without oral argument. The term was coined in 2015 by University of Chicago Law professor William Baude.

The shadow docket is a break from ordinary procedure. Such cases receive very limited briefings and are typically decided a week or less after an application is filed. The process generally results in short, unsigned rulings. On the other hand, merits cases take months, include oral argument, and result in lengthy opinions detailing the reasoning of the majority and concurring and dissenting justices, if any.

It is used when the Court believes an applicant will suffer "irreparable harm" if its request is not immediately granted. Historically, the shadow docket was rarely used for rulings of serious legal or political significance. However, since 2017, it has been increasingly utilized for consequential rulings, especially for requests by the Department of Justice for emergency stays of lower-court rulings. The practice has been criticized for various reasons, including for bias, lack of transparency, and lack of accountability.

Wednesday, April 6, 2022

Stupid Questions GOVT 2306 SCH1

The most confusing subject matter we've covered so far is the different types of elections. For example, not every state has the same election. I think it is so hard and nerve-racking to keep up with everything that is going on. Also, a stupid question I have is, what is your favorite holiday? Mine is Christmas because I get to see all of my family!

I would like to know how differently the local government works compared to the state government? Also, how are the responsibilities of each level of government divided in America? Since I come from India, a country that is also run by a democratic government, I would like to know what are the differences in the specific functions of the local government?

How does the Bill of Rights protect individual liberties?

If you were to go to an island alone and only be allowed to take 3 items, what would youtake with you?

I think what is most confusing about what we have covered so far is the difference between fiscal and monetary policy and its impact on the Texas government.

The most confusing concept to grasp has been the distinctions between what is delgated to local government and what is covered under the federal goverment, especially in regards to taxation.

I had no idea we had HOMEWORK OVER THE DARN BREAK, GOSH DARN IT. The dumbest question I might have is how old are you, Professor Jefferies? Do you care what students are doing in your class, like whether they pay attention or not? Do you care at all if they skip your class? Or you only care about grades? 

Stupid Question: Why do you think the Critical Race Theory was banned inside of school and educational systems?

What is confusing me about what we have gone over so far is: What is a Neo-Eurasianism and what does it have to do with Russia's Academy of General Staff? On the discussion board about who represents me, I am still confused about specific comittees and how they have any kind of influence on me

I'm still confused about the local government in Texas; especially concerning the different levels of government like counties, cities, and other forms. I don't really understand the entire process on how the officers are chosen, and what factors decide we need local governing bodies and how much power they have. I'm also unclear on the relevance of local governments for Texas compared to the Federal government.

Maybe this isn't really considered a government question - but I'm confused as to why there are so many government officials determined to put restrictions on LGBTQ+ people and Abortions. Not only that but there is another foreign country on the verge of war (Ukraine vs. Russia). I feel like there are bigger issues at hand.

Personally, the most confusing part about the subject matter we've covered are just the differences between all the specific roles in our government/legislature. There are so many roles so I tend to be unsure of who does what. What is the difference between State Representative and U.S. representative? What are the roles of all each of the chairs of committees? And also, why is gerrymandering legal?

Is the sky really blue?

From Wikipedia: Emmett Till Antilynching Act

- Click here for the entry on Emmitt Till. 

The Emmett Till Antilynching Act is a United States federal law which makes lynching a federal hate crime.[1]

The act amends the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act and prior hate crime laws to define lynching as any conspired bias-motivated offense which results in death or serious bodily injury. It was passed by the U.S House of Representatives on February 28, 2022, and U.S. Senate on March 7, 2022, and signed into law on March 29, 2022, by President Joe Biden.

- Click here for the entry on hate crimes.

A hate crime (also known as a bias-motivated crime or bias crime)[1] is a prejudice-motivated crime which occurs when a perpetrator targets a victim because of their membership (or perceived membership) of a certain social group or racial demographic.

Examples of such groups can include, and are almost exclusively limited to ethnicity, disability, language, nationality, physical appearance, religion, gender identity or sexual orientation.[2][3][4] Non-criminal actions that are motivated by these reasons are often called "bias incidents".

"Hate crime" generally refers to criminal acts which are seen to have been motivated by bias against one or more of the social groups listed above, or by bias against their derivatives. Incidents may involve physical assault, homicide, damage to property, bullying, harassment, verbal abuse (which includes slurs) or insults, mate crime or offensive graffiti or letters (hate mail).[5]

A hate crime law is a law intended to deter bias-motivated violence.[6] Hate crime laws are distinct from laws against hate speech: hate crime laws enhance the penalties associated with conduct which is already criminal under other laws, while hate speech laws criminalize a category of speech.

From Wikipedia: List of acts of the 117th United States Congress

For future reference: 

- Click here for the entry.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964

- Click here for more. 

• Title I – VOTING RIGHTS

• Title II – INJUNCTIVE RELIEF AGAINST DISCRIMINATION IN PLACES OF PUBLIC ACCOMMODATION

• Title III – DESEGREGATION OF PUBLIC FACILITIES

• Title IV – DESEGREGATION OF PUBLIC EDUCATION

• Title V – COMMISSION ON CIVIL RIGHTS

• Title VI – NONDISCRIMINATION IN FEDERALLY ASSISTED PROGRAMS

• Title VII – EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY

• Title VIII – REGISTRATION AND VOTING STATISTICS

• Title IX – INTERVENTION AND PROCEDURE AFTER REMOVAL IN CIVIL RIGHTS CASES

• Title X – ESTABLISHMENT OF COMMUNITY RELATIONS SERVICE

• Title XI – MISCELLANEOUS

42 U.S.C. ch. 21—Civil Rights

SUBCHAPTER I—GENERALLY (§§ 1981 – 1996b)

SUBCHAPTER I–A—INSTITUTIONALIZED PERSONS nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn (§§ 1997 – 1997j)

SUBCHAPTER II—PUBLIC ACCOMMODATIONS (§§ 2000a – 2000a–6)

SUBCHAPTER III—PUBLIC FACILITIES (§§ 2000b – 2000b–3)

SUBCHAPTER IV—PUBLIC EDUCATION (§§ 2000c – 2000c–9)

SUBCHAPTER V—FEDERALLY ASSISTED PROGRAMS (§§ 2000d – 2000d–7)

SUBCHAPTER VI—EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES (§§ 2000e – 2000e–17)

SUBCHAPTER VII—REGISTRATION AND VOTING STATISTICS (§ 2000f)

SUBCHAPTER VIII—COMMUNITY RELATIONS SERVICE (§§ 2000g – 2000g–3)

SUBCHAPTER IX—MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS (§§ 2000h – 2000h–6)

Title 42 of the United States Code

Title 42 of the United States Code is the United States Code dealing with public health, social welfare, and civil rights.

42 U.S.C. ch. 1—The Public Health Service
42 U.S.C. ch. 1A—The Public Health Service, Supplemental Provisions
42 U.S.C. ch. 2—Sanitation and Quarantine
42 U.S.C. ch. 3—Leprosy
42 U.S.C. ch. 3A—Cancer
42 U.S.C. ch. 4—Viruses, Serums, Toxins, Antitoxins, Etc.
42 U.S.C. ch. 5—Maternity and Infancy Welfare and Hygiene
42 U.S.C. ch. 6—The Children's Bureau
42 U.S.C. ch. 6A—Public Health Service (Public Health Service Act)
42 U.S.C. ch. 7—Social Security
42 U.S.C. ch. 7A—Temporary Unemployment Compensation Program
42 U.S.C. ch. 8—Low-Income Housing
42 U.S.C. ch. 8A—Slum Clearance, Urban Renewal, and Farm Housing
42 U.S.C. ch. 8B—Public Works or Facilities
42 U.S.C. ch. 8C—Open-Space Land Act|Open-Space Land
42 U.S.C. ch. 9—Housing of Persons Engaged in National Defense
42 U.S.C. ch. 10—Federal Security Agency
42 U.S.C. ch. 11—Compensation for Disability or Death to Persons Employed at Military, Air, and Naval Bases Outside United States
42 U.S.C. ch. 12—Compensation for Injury, Death, or Detention of Employees of Contractors with United States Outside United States
42 U.S.C. ch. 13—School Lunch Programs
42 U.S.C. ch. 13A—Child Nutrition
42 U.S.C. ch. 14—Development and Control of Atomic Energy
42 U.S.C. ch. 15—Disaster Relief
42 U.S.C. ch. 15A—Reciprocal Fire Protection Act of 1955|Reciprocal Fire Protection Agreements
42 U.S.C. ch. 15B—Air Pollution Control
42 U.S.C. ch. 16—National Science Foundation
42 U.S.C. ch. 16A—Grants for Support of Scientific Research
42 U.S.C. ch. 16B—Contracts for Scientific and Technological Research
42 U.S.C. ch. 17—Federal Employment Service
42 U.S.C. ch. 18—Youth Medals
42 U.S.C. ch. 19—Saline and Salt Waters
42 U.S.C. ch. 19A—Water Resources Research Program
42 U.S.C. ch. 19B—Water Resources Planning Act|Water Resources Planning
42 U.S.C. ch. 20—Elective Franchise
42 U.S.C. ch. 20A—Civil Rights Commission
42 U.S.C. ch. 21—Civil Rights
42 U.S.C. ch. 21A—Privacy Protection Act|Privacy Protection
42 U.S.C. ch. 21B—Religious Freedom Restoration
42 U.S.C. ch. 21C—Protection of Religious Exercise in Land Use and by Institutionalized Persons
42 U.S.C. ch. 22—Indian Hospitals and Health Facilities
42 U.S.C. ch. 23—Development and Control of Atomic Energy
42 U.S.C. ch. 24—Disposal of Atomic Energy Communities
42 U.S.C. ch. 25—Federal Flood Insurance
42 U.S.C. ch. 26—National Space Program
42 U.S.C. ch. 26A—National Space Grant College and Fellowship Program
42 U.S.C. ch. 26B—Biomedical Research in Space Act of 1991|Biomedical Research in Space
42 U.S.C. ch. 27—Loan Service of Captioned Films and Educational Media for Handicapped
42 U.S.C. ch. 28—Area Redevelopment Act|Area Redevelopment Program
42 U.S.C. ch. 29—Juvenile Delinquency and Youth Offenses Control Act of 1961|Juvenile Delinquency and Youth Offenses Control
42 U.S.C. ch. 30—Manpower Development and Training Program
42 U.S.C. ch. 31—Public Works Acceleration Program
42 U.S.C. ch. 32—Third Party Liability for Hospital and Medical Care
42 U.S.C. ch. 33—Community Mental Health Act|Community Mental Health Centers
42 U.S.C. ch. 34—Economic Opportunity Program
42 U.S.C. ch. 35—Programs for Older Americans
42 U.S.C. ch. 35A—Community Service Employment for Older Americans
42 U.S.C. ch. 36—Compensation of Condemnees in Development Programs
42 U.S.C. ch. 37—Community Facilities and Advance Land Acquisition
42 U.S.C. ch. 38—Public Works and Economic Development
42 U.S.C. ch. 39—Solid Waste Disposal
42 U.S.C. ch. 40—Soil Information Assistance for Community Planning and Resource Development
42 U.S.C. ch. 41—Demonstration Cities and Metropolitan Development Program
42 U.S.C. ch. 42—Narcotic Addict Rehabilitation Act|Narcotic Addict Rehabilitation
42 U.S.C. ch. 43—Department of Health and Human Services
42 U.S.C. ch. 44—Department of Housing and Urban Development
42 U.S.C. ch. 45—Fair Housing
42 U.S.C. ch. 46—Justice System Improvement Act of 1979|Justice System Improvement
42 U.S.C. ch. 47—Juvenile Delinquency Prevention and Control
42 U.S.C. ch. 48—Guarantees for Financing New Community Land Development
42 U.S.C. ch. 49—National Housing Partnerships
42 U.S.C. ch. 50—National Flood Insurance
42 U.S.C. ch. 51—Design and Construction of Public Buildings to Accommodate Physically Handicapped
42 U.S.C. ch. 52—Intergovernmental Cooperation
42 U.S.C. ch. 52A—Joint Funding Simplification
42 U.S.C. ch. 53—Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations
42 U.S.C. ch. 54—Cabinet Committee on Opportunities for Spanish-Speaking People
42 U.S.C. ch. 55—National Environmental Policy
42 U.S.C. ch. 56—Environmental Quality Improvement
42 U.S.C. ch. 57—Environmental Pollution Study
42 U.S.C. ch. 58—Disaster Relief
42 U.S.C. ch. 59—National Urban Policy and New Community Development
42 U.S.C. ch. 60—Comprehensive Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Prevention, Treatment, and Rehabilitation Program
42 U.S.C. ch. 61—Uniform Relocation Assistance and Real Property Acquisition Policies Act|Uniform Relocation Assistance and Real Property Acquisition Policies for Federal and Federally Assisted Programs
42 U.S.C. ch. 62—Intergovernmental Personnel Program
42 U.S.C. ch. 63—Lead-Based Paint Poisoning Prevention Act|Lead-Based Paint Poisoning Prevention
42 U.S.C. ch. 63A—Residential Lead-Based Paint Hazard Reduction
42 U.S.C. ch. 64—Public Service Employment Programs
42 U.S.C. ch. 65—Noise Control
42 U.S.C. ch. 66—Domestic Volunteer Services
42 U.S.C. ch. 67—Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment and Adoption Reform Act of 1978|Adoption Reform
42 U.S.C. ch. 68—Disaster Relief
42 U.S.C. ch. 69—Community Development
42 U.S.C. ch. 70—Manufactured Home Construction and Safety Standards
42 U.S.C. ch. 71—Solar Energy Act|Solar Energy
42 U.S.C. ch. 72—Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention
42 U.S.C. ch. 73—Development of Energy Sources
42 U.S.C. ch. 74—Federal Nonnuclear Energy Research and Development Act of 1974|Nonnuclear Energy Research and Development
42 U.S.C. ch. 75—Programs for Individuals with Developmental Disabilities
42 U.S.C. ch. 76—Age Discrimination in Federally Assisted Programs
42 U.S.C. ch. 77—Energy Conservation Act|Energy Conservation
42 U.S.C. ch. 78—National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska
42 U.S.C. ch. 79—National Science and Technology Policy, Organization, and Priorities Act of 1976|Science and Technology Policy, Organization and Priorities
42 U.S.C. ch. 80—Public Works Employment Act of 1977|Public Works Employment
42 U.S.C. ch. 81—Energy Conservation and Resource Renewal
42 U.S.C. ch. 82—Solid Waste Disposal
42 U.S.C. ch. 83—National Energy Extension Service Act of 1977|Energy Extension Service
42 U.S.C. ch. 84—Department of Energy
42 U.S.C. ch. 85—Air Pollution Prevention and Control
42 U.S.C. ch. 86—Earthquake Hazards Reduction
42 U.S.C. ch. 87—Water Research and Development Act of 1978|Water Research and Development
42 U.S.C. ch. 88—Uranium Mill Tailings Radiation Control Act
42 U.S.C. ch. 89—Congregate Housing Services Act of 1978|Congregate Housing Services
42 U.S.C. ch. 90—Neighborhood and City Reinvestment, Self-Help and Revitalization
42 U.S.C. ch. 91—National Energy Conservation Policy
42 U.S.C. ch. 92—Powerplant and Industrial Fuel Use Act|Powerplant and Industrial Fuel Use
42 U.S.C. ch. 93—Emergency Energy Conservation
42 U.S.C. ch. 94—Low-Income Energy Assistance
42 U.S.C. ch. 95—United States Synthetic Fuels Corporation
42 U.S.C. ch. 96—Biomass Energy and Alcohol Fuels
42 U.S.C. ch. 97—Acid Precipitation Program and Carbon Dioxide Study
42 U.S.C. ch. 98—Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Research, Development, and Demonstration Act|Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Research and Development
42 U.S.C. ch. 99—Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Act of 1980|Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
42 U.S.C. ch. 100—Wind Energy Systems Act of 1980|Wind Energy Systems
42 U.S.C. ch. 101: Magnetic Fusion Energy Engineering Act of 1980|Magnetic Fusion Energy Engineering
42 U.S.C. ch. 102: Mental Health Systems
42 U.S.C. ch. 103: Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability
42 U.S.C. ch. 104: Nuclear Safety Research, Development, and Demonstration
42 U.S.C. ch. 105: Community Services Programs
42 U.S.C. ch. 106: Community Services Block Grant Program
42 U.S.C. ch. 107: Consumer-Patient Radiation Health and Safety Act of 1981|Consumer-Patient Radiation Health and Safety
42 U.S.C. ch. 108: Nuclear Waste Policy
42 U.S.C. ch. 109: Water Resources Research
42 U.S.C. ch. 109A: Membrane Processes Research Act of 1992|Membrane Processes Research
42 U.S.C. ch. 110: Family Violence Prevention and Services
42 U.S.C. ch. 111: Emergency Federal Law Enforcement Assistance Act|Emergency Federal Law Enforcement Assistance
42 U.S.C. ch. 112: Victim Compensation and Assistance
42 U.S.C. ch. 113: State Justice Institute
42 U.S.C. ch. 114: Protection and Advocacy for Mentally Ill Individuals Act of 1986|Protection And Advocacy For Mentally Ill Individuals
42 U.S.C. ch. 115: Child Development Associate Scholarship Assistance Program
42 U.S.C. ch. 116: Emergency Planning and Community Right-To-Know
42 U.S.C. ch. 117: Encouraging Good Faith Professional Review Activities
42 U.S.C. ch. 118: Alzheimer's Disease and Related Dementias Research
42 U.S.C. ch. 119: Homeless Assistance
42 U.S.C. ch. 120: Enterprise Zone Development
42 U.S.C. ch. 121: International Child Abduction Remedies
42 U.S.C. ch. 122: Native Hawaiian Health Care Act of 1988|Native Hawaiian Health Care
42 U.S.C. ch. 123: Drug Abuse Education and Prevention Act of 1986|Drug Abuse Education and Prevention
42 U.S.C. ch. 124: Public Housing Drug Elimination Program|Public Housing Drug Elimination
42 U.S.C. ch. 125: Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Technology Competitiveness Act of 1989|Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Technology Competitiveness
42 U.S.C. ch. 126: Equal Opportunity For Individuals With Disabilities
42 U.S.C. ch. 127: Coordinated Services For Children, Youth, and Families
42 U.S.C. ch. 128: Hydrogen Research, Development, and Demonstration Program Act of 1990
42 U.S.C. ch. 129: National and Community Service Act of 1990|National and Community Service
42 U.S.C. ch. 130: National Affordable Housing Act|National Affordable Housing
42 U.S.C. ch. 131: Housing Opportunities for Persons with AIDS Program|Housing Opportunities for Persons with AIDS
42 U.S.C. ch. 132: Victims of Child Abuse
42 U.S.C. ch. 133: Pollution Prevention Act|Pollution Prevention
42 U.S.C. ch. 134: Energy Policy
42 U.S.C. ch. 135: Residency and Service Requirements in Federally Assisted Housing
42 U.S.C. ch. 136: Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement
42 U.S.C. ch. 137: Management of Rechargeable Batteries and Batteries Containing Mercury
42 U.S.C. ch. 138: Assisted Suicide Funding Restriction Act of 1997|Assisted Suicide Funding Restriction
42 U.S.C. ch. 139: Volunteer Protection
42 U.S.C. ch. 140: Criminal Justice Identification, Information, and Communication
42 U.S.C. ch. 140A: Jennifer's Law (federal law)|Jennifer's Law
42 U.S.C. ch. 141: Commercial Space Opportunities and Transportation Services
42 U.S.C. ch. 142: Poison Control Center Enhancement and Awareness Act|Poison Control Center Enhancement and Awareness
42 U.S.C. ch. 143: Intercountry Adoption Act of 2000|Intercountry Adoptions
42 U.S.C. ch. 144: Developmental Disabilities Assistance and Bill of Rights Act of 2000|Developmental Disabilities Assistance and Bill of Rights
42 U.S.C. ch. 145: Public Safety Officer Medal of Valor and Tributes
42 U.S.C. ch. 146: Election Administration Improvement
42 U.S.C. ch. 147: Prison Rape Elimination
42 U.S.C. ch. 148: Windstorm Impact Reduction Act|Windstorm Impact Reduction
42 U.S.C. ch. 149: Energy Policy, 2005
42 U.S.C. ch. 150: National Aeronautics and Space Programs, 2005
42 U.S.C. ch. 151: Child Protection and Safety
42 U.S.C. ch. 152: Energy Independence and Security

From the DOJ: DEPRIVATION OF RIGHTS UNDER COLOR OF LAW

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TITLE 18, U.S.C., SECTION 242

Whoever, under color of any law, statute, ordinance, regulation, or custom, willfully subjects any person in any State, Territory, Commonwealth, Possession, or District to the deprivation of any rights, privileges, or immunities secured or protected by the Constitution or laws of the United States, ... shall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than one year, or both; and if bodily injury results from the acts committed in violation of this section or if such acts include the use, attempted use, or threatened use of a dangerous weapon, explosives, or fire, shall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than ten years, or both; and if death results from the acts committed in violation of this section or if such acts include kidnapping or an attempt to kidnap, aggravated sexual abuse, or an attempt to commit aggravated sexual abuse, or an attempt to kill, shall be fined under this title, or imprisoned for any term of years or for life, or both, or may be sentenced to death.

Title 18 concerns crimes and criminal procedures.

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From Wikipedia: Ku Klux Klan Act

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The Enforcement Act of 1871 (17 Stat. 13), also known as the Ku Klux Klan Act, Third Enforcement Act,[1] Third Ku Klux Klan Act,[2] Civil Rights Act of 1871, or Force Act of 1871,[3] is an Act of the United States Congress which empowered the President to suspend the writ of habeas corpus to combat the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) and other terrorist organizations. The act was passed by the 42nd United States Congress and signed into law by United States President Ulysses S. Grant on April 20, 1871. The act was the last of three Enforcement Acts passed by the United States Congress from 1870 to 1871 during the Reconstruction Era to combat attacks upon the suffrage rights of African Americans. The statute has been subject to only minor changes since then, but has been the subject of voluminous interpretation by courts.

This legislation was asked for by President Grant and passed within one month of when he sent the request to Congress. Grant's request was a result of the reports he was receiving of widespread racial threats in the Deep South, particularly in South Carolina. He felt that he needed to have his authority broadened before he could effectively intervene. After the act's passage, the president had the power for the first time to both suppress state disorders on his own initiative and to suspend the right of habeas corpus. Grant did not hesitate to use this authority on numerous occasions during his presidency, and as a result the KKK was completely dismantled (ending the "first Klan" era) and did not resurface in any meaningful way until the beginning of the 20th century.[4]

Several of the act's provisions still exist today as codified statutes. The most important of these is 42 U.S.C. § 1983: Civil action for deprivation of rights. It is the most widely used civil rights enforcement statute, allowing people to sue in civil court over civil rights violations.

From the Texas State Library and Archives Commission: DECLARATION OF CAUSES: February 2, 1861 A declaration of the causes which impel the State of Texas to secede from the Federal Union.

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From the intro: 

The government of the United States, by certain joint resolutions, bearing date the 1st day of 
March, in the year A.D. 1845, proposed to the Republic of Texas, then a free, sovereign and independent nation, the annexation of the latter to the former as one of the co-equal States thereof,

The people of Texas, by deputies in convention assembled, on the fourth day of July of the same year, assented to and accepted said proposals and formed a constitution for the proposed State, upon which on the 29th day of December in the same year, said State was formally admitted into the Confederated Union.

Texas abandoned her separate national existence and consented to become one of the Confederated States to promote her welfare, insure domestic tranquility [sic] and secure more substantially the blessings of peace and liberty to her people. She was received into the confederacy with her own constitution, under the guarantee of the federal constitution and the compact of annexation, that she should enjoy these blessings. She was received as a commonwealth holding, maintaining and protecting the institution known as negro slavery--the servitude of the African to the white race within her limits--a relation that had existed from the first settlement of her wilderness by the white race, and which her people intended should exist in all future time. Her institutions and geographical position established the strongest ties between her and other slave-holding States of the confederacy. Those ties have been strengthened by association. But what has been the course of the government of the United States, and of the people and authorities of the non-slave-holding States, since our connection with them?

The controlling majority of the Federal Government, under various pretences and disguises, has so administered the same as to exclude the citizens of the Southern States, unless under odious and unconstitutional restrictions, from all the immense territory owned in common by all the States on the Pacific Ocean, for the avowed purpose of acquiring sufficient power in the common government to use it as a means of destroying the institutions of Texas and her sister slave-holding States.

By the disloyalty of the Northern States and their citizens and the imbecility of the Federal Government, infamous combinations of incendiaries and outlaws have been permitted in those States and the common territory of Kansas to trample upon the federal laws, to war upon the lives and property of Southern citizens in that territory, and finally, by violence and mob law, to usurp the possession of the same as exclusively the property of the Northern States.

The Federal Government, while but partially under the control of these our unnatural and sectional enemies, has for years almost entirely failed to protect the lives and property of the people of Texas against the Indian savages on our border, and more recently against the murderous forays of banditti from the neighboring territory of Mexico; and when our State government has expended large amounts for such purpose, the Federal Government has refused reimbursement therefor, thus rendering our condition more insecure and harrassing than it was during the existence of the Republic of Texas.

These and other wrongs we have patiently borne in the vain hope that a returning sense of justice and humanity would induce a different course of administration.

When we advert to the course of individual non-slave-holding States, and that [of] a majority of their citizens, our grievances assume far greater magnitude.

The Civil War Amendments

- 13th Amendment.

Passed by Congress January 31, 1865. Ratified December 6, 1865.

1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.

2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.


- 14th Amendment.

Passed by Congress June 13, 1866. Ratified July 9, 1868

1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor to deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.

2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of Electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.

3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or Elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability.

4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void.

5. The Congress shall have the power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.


- 15th Amendment.

Passed by Congress February 26, 1869. Ratified February 3, 1870.

1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

2. The Congress shall have the power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.