From Britannica: Elite Theory and the Iron Law of Oligarchy

- Click here for Elite Theory.

. . . in political science, theoretical perspective according to which (1) a community’s affairs are best handled by a small subset of its members and (2) in modern societies such an arrangement is in fact inevitable. These two tenets are ideologically allied but logically separable.

The basic normative question underlying elite theory is whether the relative power of any group ought to exceed its relative size. The affirmative answer goes back to ancient Greece, where the disproportionate influence of distinguished minorities was defended by reference to their superior wisdom or virtue, as in Plato’s “guardian” class of rulers. The Greek precursor to the English aristocracy (aristokratia) referred to rule by “the best men” (the aristoi). The empirical assumption behind the defense of elite rule at the time was the unequal distribution of the finest human traits.

The inevitability of elite rule could not be taken for granted, however, as attested by the fact that ancient, medieval, and early modern political writers undertook a constant struggle against rule by ordinary people, or democracy, which was often equated with the absence of order, or anarchy. That explicitly antidemocratic posture was characteristic of Christian writers such as Thomas Aquinas, the 13th-century theologian. The French word élite, from which the modern English is taken, means simply “the elect” or “the chosen” and thus accommodates the notion that people of outstanding ability hold their power and privileges by divine sanction.

- Click here for the Iron Law of Oligarchy.

A sociological thesis according to which all organizations, including those committed to democratic ideals and practices, will inevitably succumb to rule by an elite few (an oligarchy). The iron law of oligarchy contends that organizational democracy is an oxymoron. Although elite control makes internal democracy unsustainable, it is also said to shape the long-term development of all organizations—including the rhetorically most radical—in a conservative direction.

Robert Michels spelled out the iron law of oligarchy in the first decade of the 20th century in Political Parties, a brilliant comparative study of European socialist parties that drew extensively on his own experiences in the German Socialist Party. Influenced by Max Weber’s analysis of bureaucracy as well as by Vilfredo Pareto’s and Gaetano Mosca’s theories of elite rule, Michels argued that organizational oligarchy resulted, most fundamentally, from the imperatives of modern organization: competent leadership, centralized authority, and the division of tasks within a professional bureaucracy. These organizational imperatives necessarily gave rise to a caste of leaders whose superior knowledge, skills, and status, when combined with their hierarchical control of key organizational resources such as internal communication and training, would allow them to dominate the broader membership and to domesticate dissenting groups. Michels supplemented this institutional analysis of internal power consolidation with psychological arguments drawn from Gustave Le Bon’s crowd theory. From this perspective, Michels particularly emphasized the idea that elite domination also flowed from the way rank-and-file members craved guidance by and worshipped their leaders. Michels insisted that the chasm separating elite leaders from rank-and-file members would also steer organizations toward strategic moderation, as key organizational decisions would ultimately be taken more in accordance with leaders’ self-serving priorities of organizational survival and stability than with members’ preferences and demands.

The iron law became a central theme in the study of organized labour, political parties, and pluralist democracy in the postwar era.

Related: - Extrapolating Insufferability from Fandom Affiliation: The Case of Elon Musk Fanboys.

The Iron Law of Oligarchy - A Couple Views

- Britannica:

The iron law of oligarchy, sociological thesis according to which all organizations, including those committed to democratic ideals and practices, will inevitably succumb to rule by an elite few (an oligarchy). The iron law of oligarchy contends that organizational democracy is an oxymoron. Although elite control makes internal democracy unsustainable, it is also said to shape the long-term development of all organizations—including the rhetorically most radical—in a conservative direction.

- Wikipedia:

The iron law of oligarchy is a political theory first developed by the German-born Italian sociologist Robert Michels in his 1911 book Political Parties. It asserts that rule by an elite, or oligarchy, is inevitable as an "iron law" within any democratic organization as part of the "tactical and technical necessities" of the organization.

Michels' theory states that all complex organizations, regardless of how democratic they are when started, eventually develop into oligarchies. Michels observed that since no sufficiently large and complex organization can function purely as a direct democracy, power within an organization will always get delegated to individuals within that group, elected or otherwise. As he put it in Political Parties, "It is organization which gives dominion of the elected over the electors. [...] Who says organization, says oligarchy."

In 1911 using anecdotes from the histories of political parties and trade unions struggling to operate democratically, Michels considered his argument applicable to representative democracy at large. He believed that "[h]istorical evolution mocks all the prophylactic measures that have been adopted for the prevention of oligarchy."

Hierarchy

Wikipedia: Hierarchy. 

A hierarchy (from Greek: ἱεραρχία, hierarkhia, 'rule of a high priest', from hierarkhes, 'president of sacred rites') is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) that are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, architecture, design, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, systematic biology, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).

A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.

Wikipedia: Political culture of the United States.

Traditionalistic political culture arose in the South, which elevates social order and family structure to a prominent role. It accepts a natural hierarchy in society and where necessary to protect society, authoritarian leadership in the political and religious realms. [1]

The formation of traditionalistic political culture is often thought to have arisen principally out of Virginia, the first and most populous southern colony. Virginia was also the most politically powerful state after the American Revolution: pursuant to the first census of the United States in 1790 it held a greater percentage of congressional representatives than any other state has ever enjoyed up to the present day. Nevertheless, others argue that South Carolina had the greater influence as a result of its Grand Model enabling slaveholders from Barbados to establish a durable aristocracy. That unique convergence produced a slave society with a majority black population rigidly controlled by the plantation elite. Maintaining such a society required intense political resolve and the development of a mythology of white racial supremacy. The South Carolina hybrid model ultimately spread across the Deep South and was unwavering in its promotion of southern culture, whereas Virginia and other Upper South states were less comfortable with the region’s “peculiar institution” of slavery.

Wikipedia: The Noble Lie.

In politics, a noble lie is a myth or untruth, often, but not invariably, of a religious nature, knowingly propagated by an elite to maintain social harmony or to advance an agenda. The noble lie is a concept originated by Plato as described in the Republic.

Plato presented the noble lie (γενναῖον ψεῦδος, gennaion pseudos)[3] in the fictional tale known as the myth or parable of the metals in book III. In it, Socrates provides the origin of the three social classes who compose the republic proposed by Plato; Socrates speaks of a socially stratified society as a metaphor for the soul

Wikipedia: The Iron Law of Oligarchy.

The iron law of oligarchy is a political theory first developed by the German-born Italian sociologist Robert Michels in his 1911 book, Political Parties. It asserts that rule by an elite, or oligarchy, is inevitable as an "iron law" within any democratic organization as part of the "tactical and technical necessities" of organization.

Michels's theory states that all complex organizations, regardless of how democratic they are when started, eventually develop into oligarchies. Michels observed that since no sufficiently large and complex organization can function purely as a direct democracy, power within an organization will always get delegated to individuals within that group, elected or otherwise.

Using anecdotes from political parties and trade unions struggling to operate democratically to build his argument in 1911, Michels addressed the application of this law to representative democracy, and stated: "Who says organization, says oligarchy."[1] He went on to state that "Historical evolution mocks all the prophylactic measures that have been adopted for the prevention of oligarchy."[1]

According to Michels, all organizations eventually come to be run by a "leadership class", who often function as paid administrators, executives, spokespersons or political strategists for the organization. Far from being "servants of the masses", Michels argues this "leadership class," rather than the organization's membership, will inevitably grow to dominate the organization's power structures. By controlling who has access to information, those in power can centralize their power successfully, often with little accountability, due to the apathy, indifference and non-participation most rank-and-file members have in relation to their organization's decision-making processes. Michels argues that democratic attempts to hold leadership positions accountable are prone to fail, since with power comes the ability to reward loyalty, the ability to control information about the organization, and the ability to control what procedures the organization follows when making decisions. All of these mechanisms can be used to strongly influence the outcome of any decisions made 'democratically' by members.

The Iron Law of Oligarchy Lives

Almost 100 years ago, French author Robert Michels noted that despite their best intentions, socialist party organizations were developing into the same hierarchical structures as the conservative parties they opposed. He developed a theory called the iron law of oligarchy to describe this tendency. His thesis is seemingly robust, considering how well it describes political phenomena, but is also commonly ignored.

The Sunday Chron's Outlook section features yet another story--We all Bow to the Superclass-- that looks with surprise at a phenomena he calls inevitable:

We didn't elect them. We can't throw them out. And they're getting more powerful every day.

Call them the superclass.

At the moment, Americans are fixated on the political campaign. In the meantime, many are missing a reality of the global era that may matter much more than their presidential choice: On an ever-growing list of issues, the big decisions are being made or profoundly influenced by a little-understood international network of business, financial, government, cultural and military leaders who are beyond the reach of American voters.

In addition to top officials, these people include corporate executives, leading investors, top bankers, media moguls, heads of state, generals, religious leaders, heads of terrorist and criminal organizations and a handful of important cultural and scientific figures. Each of these roughly 6,000 individuals is set apart by their power and ability to regularly influence millions of lives across international borders. The group is not monolithic, but none is more globalized or has more influence over the direction in which the global era is heading.

Doubt it? Just look at the current financial crisis. As government regulators have sought to head off further market losses, they've found that perhaps the most effective tool at their disposal is what the president of the New York Federal Reserve Bank described to me as their "convening power" — their ability to get the big boys of Wall Street and world financial capitals into a room or on a conference call to collaborate on solving a problem. This has, in fact, become a central part of crisis management, both because national governments have limited regulatory authority over global markets and because financial flows have become so large that the real power lies with the biggest players — such as the top 50 financial institutions that control almost $50 trillion in assets, by one measure nearly a third of all assets worldwide.

6,000 people, the author tells us, dominate events in the world and ensure that government officials establish policies that focus on their self interest. He provides no historical context, so we have no way of knowing if 6,000--a figure I do not dispute--is more or less than the number of people who shaped world events in centuries and millennia past. He concludes by stating that the counterbalancing of this power should be a central focus of the current presidential campaign, though he is suspicious of whether a president can make much of a difference:

The next U.S. president will still be the most powerful person in the world because of his or her control of the nation's unparalleled military might and influence over our economic and political resources. But that influence is on the wane, for a number of reasons: the relative decline in the power of national governments; the relative rise in the power of others in the world's fastest-growing places; U.S. trade and fiscal deficits; and a third, geopolitical deficit arising from both damaged national prestige and what might be characterized either as Iraq fatigue or as having learned from the mistakes of the past several years.

None of this makes the decision that U.S. voters will make in November less important. Government still offers the average citizen the best means of counterbalancing the superclass or redressing growing inequality. And governments will have to play a key role in shaping the new regulatory frameworks and governance mechanisms that will be essential to a more balanced distribution of power in the global era.

But what it does mean is that "change" isn't just a slogan in this year's campaign. It's a reality that will redefine the landscape of power worldwide for U.S. presidents of the future.

Michels would call this arrangement inevitable and only circumstantially different than what has exited in previous moments in history. James Madison would agree that these interests are inevitable, but would add that the central task of a constitutional system is to ensure that this power is divided and made to counteract other forces.

Section One - Power, Authority, Government, and Politics

First things first: 

- Why do you have to take this class?

Next things next. Here are key terms we will use in this class. 

- Power
- Authority
- Government
- Politics

[Note: These answers were initially generated by ChatGPT.]
_____

What is Power?

Power refers to the ability or capacity of an individual or group to influence, control, or direct the actions, behaviors, or thoughts of others.

Focus: on Coercive Power: Power based on the use or threat of force to compel compliance. It relies on the ability to punish or penalize those who do not follow directives.

- You Tube: What is Totalitarianism?
- Ask ChatGPT: How can limits be placed on power?
- You Tube: The Jack Benny Program - "Your Money Or Your Life"
- You Tube: Saddam Hussein's Very Public Purge.
- You Tube: Nicolae Ceausescu - Last Speech, Trial and Execution.

What is Authority?

Authority refers to the recognized or legitimate right to exercise power, control, or influence over others. It is often conferred by a legal, institutional, or social framework and comes with the expectation of compliance or obedience. 

One does not have to forced to comply with rulers because hey accept the legitimacy of their rule and voluntarily comply with their demands.

- Charismatic Authority: Based on an individual's personal qualities or charisma, such as a religious leader or revolutionary figure.

- Legal Authority: Derived from laws or legal frameworks, such as a judge, law enforcement officer, or government official.

- Traditional Authority: Based on long-standing customs, traditions, or practices. For example, a king or a tribal elder.

- Wikipedia: Consent of the Governed.
- You Tube: Max Weber on Authority.
- Ask ChatGPT: What is the consent of the governed?

|
What is Government?

Government refers to the system or organization through which a community, society, or nation is governed. It is responsible for creating and enforcing laws, providing public services, maintaining order, and protecting its citizens. Governments can vary widely in their structure, functions, and ideologies, but they all serve as a framework for managing societal affairs.

The United States is an example of a system based on legal authority.

Aristotle's Classification of Government

1. Rule by the One

Good Form: Monarchy

- Who rules: One person (a king or queen).
- For whose benefit: The common good, the welfare of all citizens.
- Characteristics: In a monarchy, a single ruler governs with wisdom and virtue, aiming to promote the well-being of the state and its people. The ruler has absolute authority but is expected to act justly and in the interest of the citizens.

Corrupt Form: Tyranny

- Tyranny occurs when the ruler governs for their own benefit rather than for the common good. The tyrant uses their absolute power oppressively and unjustly.

2. Rule by the Few

Good Form: Aristocracy

- Who rules: A few virtuous individuals (aristocrats).
- For whose benefit: The common good, the benefit of all citizens.
- Characteristics: In an aristocracy, a small group of elite citizens (often the most virtuous and capable) govern based on their wisdom and knowledge. The aim is to serve the well-being of the community as a whole, not personal interests.

Corrupt Form: Oligarchy
 
- Oligarchy occurs when the ruling few govern not for the benefit of all, but for their own advantage, typically favoring their own wealth or status, often at the expense of the majority.

- You Tube: The Iron Law of Oligarchy.
- You Tube: Elite Theory.

3. Rule by the Many

Good Form: Polity

- Who rules: The many (a large group of citizens).
- For whose benefit: The common good, the welfare of all citizens.
- Characteristics: In a polity, the middle class plays a prominent role in governance, and political power is shared among a broad group of citizens. It is a form of mixed government, drawing on elements of democracy and oligarchy. The aim is to balance the interests of the rich and poor, maintaining the stability of the state.

Corrupt Form: Democracy

- Democracy, in Aristotle’s view, is the corrupt version of polity. In a democracy, the many rule, but often in their own interest rather than for the common good. It can lead to mob rule, where the poor majority dominates and disregards the rights of the wealthy or the minority.

- Aristotle's Classification of Regimes: Exploring the Varieties of Governance.

Centralized Government
Decentralized / Balanced



What is Politics? 

Politics refers to the activities, processes, and practices associated with the governance of a society or group. It involves making decisions about how power and resources are distributed, resolving conflicts, and establishing rules or policies to guide collective action. Politics is a fundamental aspect of human society, shaping the way individuals and groups interact, organize, and exercise power.

Political conflict is an inevitable feature of a free and diverse society.

Key Aspects of Politics:

- Governance and Power: Politics is fundamentally about who holds power and how it is exercised. This could be through political offices, institutions, laws, and various means of influence like media or public opinion. The central concern is often the distribution and control of resources, authority, and decision-making.

- Decision-Making: Politics involves the process of making collective decisions about how a society or organization should be governed. These decisions cover a broad range of issues, such as laws, policies, economy, education, and foreign relations.

- Participation: Political participation includes voting, running for office, protesting, lobbying, and engaging in civil discourse. Citizens, groups, or political parties actively engage in political life to influence the direction of their country or community.

- Institutions and Structures: Political systems are organized around institutions like governments, courts, legislatures, political parties, and international organizations. These structures are responsible for making and enforcing laws, administering justice, and managing public affairs.

- Ideology and Beliefs: Politics is also shaped by ideologies — sets of beliefs about how societies should be organized, the role of government, and how power should be distributed. Common political ideologies include liberalism, conservatism, socialism, and nationalism, among others.

- Conflict and Cooperation: Politics often involves managing conflicts between different social groups, economic classes, or nations. At the same time, it requires cooperation between various stakeholders to create policies and resolve differences.

See also: Political Culture.

_____

Using the concepts above, Let's try to understand the arguments in the documents below, whichever is appropriate for your class: 

GOVT 2305: The U.S. Declaration of Independence.
GOVT 2306: The Texas Declaration of Independence.

_____

Terms: 

- government.
- institutions.
- state. 
- legislature. 
- executive.
- judiciary.
- constitution.
- authority.
- coercion.
- consent.
- community.
- civil society.
- legal system.
- military.
- police.
- corruption.
- monarchy.
- autocracy.
- tyranny.
- aristocracy.
- oligarchy,
- polity.
- democracy,
- direct democracy.
- indirect democracy.
- authoritarianism.
- power.
- politics.
- groups.
- influence.
- political parties.
- interest groups.
- the media.
- social media
- political consultants.
- political culture

Posts - optional

- What is power?
- Why do you have to take this class?
- No Really . . . why do you have to take this class?
- Aristotle and His Classification of Government.
- Max Weber: Power and Authority.
- The First Virginia Charter 1606.
- Territorial History of the USA: Every Month for 400 Years.
- Stephen Austin's contract to bring settlers to Texas, 1825.
- Territorial Development of Texas.
- From the Texas Education Agency: Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills for K - 12. Government.

Study Guide for GOVT 2305 16 Week Class

In addition to the list for 8 week students below, 16 week students should get comfortable with these topics for the final this week:

- the subject of each of the Articles of the Constitution

- the content of the Declaration of Independence
- the development of natural rights
- the development of separated powers

- the consent of the governed

- the Magna Carta and the British Bill of Rights
- the basic design of each of the institutions it creates
- the principles embedded in the original constitution

- the historical roots of the constitution
- the conflict over the Articles of Confederation

- the continued conflict over the extent of national power
- the content of the Bill of Rights

- controversies associated with the substantive and procedural liberties
- the role of the Supreme Court in clarifying constitutional language
- controversies over the interpretation of the constitution
- controversies associated with the freedoms of speech, press, assembly and petition

- consequences of the above freedoms

- sedition and seditious libel
- Fed 10 and Fed 51
- the conflict between campaign finance rules and freedom of speech
- the impact of the 14th Amendment
- the impact of the various amendments related to suffrage
- the design of elections in the US
- the consequences of the winner take all system
- the development of political parties
- party factions
- critical elections and party eras

- interest groups and iron triangles
- ideology
- the roots of conservatism and liberalism
- the role of ideology and party identification in the formation of public opinion
- tyranny, autocracy, oligarchy, democracy
- civil rights: what is it?
- controversies associated with the equal protection of the law
- the public policy process
- the dilemmas of democracy
- the role of parties in Congress
- the bill making process
- religious liberty
- the roles of the national, state and local governments
- the expansion of executive power
- controversies associated with presidential power

- changes in the presidential nomination process
- the nature of political conflict
- judicial independence
- the compromises in the US Constitution
- the committee system
- the checks and balances
- the elastic clauses
- who votes? how do they vote?
- trial and appeals
- the New Deal

- the reserved, implied, reserved and inherent powers

That's enough. Don't restrict yourself to these - but if you are thoroughly comfortable with all of these topics, you should be able to do well on the exam. No promises of course, but this should give you a handle on what to focus on.

What is the Iron Law of Oligarchy?

- Click here for the full answer.

The “Iron Law of Oligarchy” is a political theory that says all organizations—even those founded on democratic or egalitarian principles—tend to become dominated by a small, entrenched leadership elite over time.

“Who says organization, says oligarchy.”

In other words, as organizations grow larger and more complex, power naturally concentrates in the hands of a few leaders—regardless of the organization’s original ideals.

This happens because:

1. Organization Requires Leadership
- Large groups need:
- administrators
- specialists
- organizers
- communicators

Over time, these leaders accumulate control over:
- information
- resources
- decision-making processes

2. Members Become Passive

Most members:
- don’t have time to participate constantly
- rely on leaders to manage day-to-day operations
- gradually defer authority to them

This increases leaders’ power.

3. Leaders Develop Interests of Their Own

Once leaders control an organization, they often:
- prioritize preserving their own positions
- develop networks of allies
- resist reforms that might reduce their authority

This creates a self-reinforcing cycle of leadership dominance.

Fall 2024 - Weekly Schedule

This applies to both GOVT 2305 and GOVT 2306

This will be adjusted regularly, but it'll give you an idea of what we will cover in my face to face class, and where I think you should be in my online class. 

Don't hesitate to ask questions and make suggestions.

Here's how I think things will go

Intro: 

- access the textbook
- review syllabus
- review Blackboard layout
- discuss first active learning assignment.
- discuss essay assignment

Week One: August 26

- Texas Declaration of Independence.
- Article 7: Texas Constitution.
- Texas Education Code.
- An Overview of the History of Public Education in Texas.

Power
- What is Power?
- - Types of Power
- - Max Weber: Traditional, Legal-Rational, and Charismatic Authority.

Government
- What is a Government?
- - Aristotle's Typology
- - The Iron Law of Oligarchy.

Politics
- What is Politics?
- - Values
- - Interests
- - Means to control governing institutions


Week Two: September 2

Constitutions
- What is a Constitution?
- - Limited Government
- - U.S. Constitution
- - Texas Constitution
- - Municipal Charters

Week Three: September 9

Week Four: September 16

Week Five: September 23

Week Six: September 30

Week Seven: October 7

Week Eight: October 14

Week Nine: October 21

Week Ten: October 28

Week Eleven: November 4

Week Twelve: November 11

Week Thirteen: November 18

Week Fourteen: November 25

Week Fifteen: December 2

Week Sixteen: December 9  



Day 1: Monday, July 15
- What is Power?
- - Types of Power
- What is a Government?
- - Aristotle's Typology
- What is Politics?
- - Values
- - Interests
- - Means to control governing institutions 
- What is a Constitution?
- - Limited Government
- - U.S. Constitution
- - Texas Constitution
- - Municipal Charters


Day 2: Tuesday, July 16
- What is Federalism
- - discuss the three levels of government
- - review the roles of each level of government
- - review areas where they overlap
- Constitutional Federalism
- - Granted / Enumerated Powers
- - Expressed Powers
- - Inherent Powers
- - Delegated Powers
- - Implied Powers
- - Concurrent Powers
- - Prohibited Powers
- The Legal Relationship Between the Nation, and the State and Local Governments
- - National Supremacy Clause
- - The 10th Amendment
- - Strict or Loose Construction
- The Legal Relationship Between the State and Local Governments
- - What is a City?
- - What is a County?
- - What is a Special District?
- - Dillon's Rule
- - Texas Constitution, Articles 9 and 11.
- - Local Government Code
- - City Ordinances
- Federalist Papers.
- Notes of the U.S. Constitutional Convention.

Day 3: Wednesday, July 17
Fiscal Federalism
- revenue 
- expenditures
- budgeting
Taxation over history
Debt over history
US Tax Code
Texas Constitution: Article 8
Texas Tax Code
Local Taxes
State and Local Debt


Day 4: Thursday, July 18
Civil Liberties
- Definition
- Limited Government
- Original Constitution
- - Habeas Corpus
- Bill of Rights
- - US
- - Texas
- Fundamental Liberties
- - Clearly Defined
- - Undefined: 9th Amendment
- - penumbras and emanations / original intent
- Due Process
- - Security in one's persons, houses, places, and effects. 
- - unreasonable search and seizures
- - indictment
- - Jury Trial
- - Cruel and Unusual Punishment


Day 5: Friday July 19
- 11th - 27th Amendments
Landmark cases
- Federalism
- Establishment Clause
- Free Exercise Clause
- - Speech: Chaplinsky
- - Search and Seizure: Terry / Riley
- - Riley


Day 6: Monday, July 22
Politics and the Political Institutions
What is Politics?
 - Preview
Groups, Interests, Passion, and Conflict
- Federalist 10.
- - Washington's Farewell Address
Citizenship
- Privileges and Immunities
- Voting
- Holding Office
- Jury Service
- Equal Treatment: non-citizenship.
Public Opinion
Direct and Indirect Democracy


Day 7: Tuesday, July 23
Suffrage
- - hierarchy
- - early America
- - justifications for property ownership
- - expansion
- - - relevant amendments
- - - relevant laws
- - - relevant agencies
- - - relevant court cases
- - contraction
- Texas Constitution
- - Pre 1836
- - 1836 - 1876
- - Article 6 (1876)
- - Amendments
- - Article 6 (2024) 
Is there a Right to Vote?


Day 8: Wednesday, July 24
Elections
- Basic Facts
- Elections Prior to the Constitution
Elections in the U.S. Constitution
- relevant amendments
- relevant laws
- relevant court cases
Election in the Texas Constitution
United States Election Code
Texas Election Code
Local Elections
Candidates and Campaigns


Day 9: Thursday, July 25
The Collective Action Problem
The Political Institutions
- Political Parties
- Interest Groups
- The Media
- Campaign Consultants
Campaigns and Campaign Funding
Political Movements 


Day 10: Friday, July 26
A Look at the Political History of the US, Texas, and the Greater Houston area

Day 11: Monday, July 29
The Governing Institutions
The Three Powers of Government
- The Legislative
- The Executive
- The Judicial
The Importance of Separating Powers
- What is Tyranny?
- The Spirit of the Laws
- Federalist  51

Day 12: Tuesday, July 30
The Legislative Power
- Components
- - Lawmaking
- - Representation
- - Power of the Purse
- - Create the Executive and Judicial Branches 
- - Checks and Balances
- Legislative Federalism
- - Congress - Article 1
- - Texas Legislature - Article 3
- - Local Legislatures
- - - City Councils



- First Congress.
- Judiciary Act of 1789.

Day 13: Wednesday, July 31
The Executive Power
- Chief Executive
- Powers
- - Constitutional
- - Extra Constitutional
Singular v Plural
- U.S. President - Article 2
- Texas Plural Executive - Article 4
Presidential Advising.
- Cabinet: Executive Departments.
- Executive Office of the President
- White House Staff
Powers of the Texas Governor
- Appointments
- Filling Vacancies
- Line Item Veto
Local Executive Power
- Mayors
- County Judges
- Boards

- Independent agencies of the United States government.
- United States federal executive departments.



Day 14: Thursday, August 1
The Executive - The Bureaucracy
- Civil Service
- Public Sector
The Civil Service
- Numbers
- Organization
- Functions
US: 
Texas: 
Local: 


Day 15: Friday, August 2
The Judiciary
Courts
Arbitration and Adjudication
Trials and Appeals

- U.S. Constitution: Article 3 
- Texas Constitution: Article 5
- Local Courts

Judiciary Acts
- Current Design
- Current Justices
- Judicial Process
- Current cases

Criminal Justice



Day 16: Monday, August 6
Public Policy
Markets: Supply and Demand
Types of Goods
- Private
- Public
Market Failure 
- Public Goods
- Monopoly
- Information
- Externalities
Social Policy
- Morality
- Poverty
- Personal Behavior
- The Extent of Individual Liberty
Political Culture and Public Policy
- Traditionalistic
- Individualistic
- Moralistic

Day 17: Wednesday, August 7
Federalism and Public Policy
- National
- - Delegated
- State
- - Reserved
- Local
Police Powers
- Health
- Welfare
- Safety
- Morals

Day 18: Thursday, August 8
Equal Treatment
- Hierarchy: What justifies unequal treatment?
- Laws that maintain inequity
- - 
14th Amendment
- Protected Classes
- Strict Scrutiny, Heightened Scrutiny, Rational Basis Review

Day 19: Friday , August 9
Fiscal and Monetary Policy
Budgeting
Department of the Treasury
Revenue
- Tax Policy
- - Constitutional
- Borrowing
- - Deficits
- - Debt
- Expenditures
- - Appropriations
- - Appropriations Committees
- Budgeting
- - Budget Committees
- - Deficits, Surpluses, Debt
- Graphics


Day 20: Monday, August 12
National
- External Defense
- Foreign Affairs
- Insurrection
- Commerce
State / Texas
- Education
- Health and Human Services
- Economic Development
- Criminal Justice and Public Safety
- Natural Resources
- Regulatory
Local
- Alvin Code of Ordinances
- Pearland Code of Ordinances
- Houston Code of Ordinances


Day 21: August 13, Tuesday
- Commerce and Labor
- Public Health
- Public Education

Review: 

From Wikipedia: Hierarchy

What some argue is a natural state in government. Only certain people are meant to rule.

- Click here for the entry. 

A hierarchy (from Greek: ἱεραρχία, hierarkhia, 'rule of a high priest', from hierarkhes, 'president of sacred rites') is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) that are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, architecture, design, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, systematic biology, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).

A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy.

- Click here for Oligarchy.

Oligarchy (from Greek ὀλιγαρχία (oligarkhía); from ὀλίγος (olígos) 'few', and ἄρχω (arkho) 'to rule or to command')[1][2][3] is a form of power structure in which power rests with a small number of people. These people may or may not be distinguished by one or several characteristics, such as nobility, fame, wealth, education, or corporate, religious, political, or military control.

Throughout history, oligarchies have often been tyrannical, relying on public obedience or oppression to exist. Aristotle pioneered the use of the term as meaning rule by the rich,[4] for which another term commonly used today is plutocracy. In the early 20th century Robert Michels developed the theory that democracies, like all large organizations, tend to turn into oligarchies. In his "Iron law of oligarchy" he suggests that the necessary division of labor in large organizations leads to the establishment of a ruling class mostly concerned with protecting their own power..

Week Five - The Political Institutions

The Political Institutions

1 - What is a Political Institution? 
2 - Suffrage
3 - Elections
4 - Groups and Interests
5 - Political Parties
6 - The Press

The Political Institutions

1 - What is a political institution? An institution whose purpose is to influence the actions of the governing institutions - those established in a country's constitution. 

2 - Suffrage: "Suffrage, political franchise, or simply franchise is the right to vote in public, political elections and referendums (although the term is sometimes used for any right to vote)."

3 - Elections: the formal process of selecting a person for public office or of accepting or rejecting a political proposition by voting.

4 - Groups and Interests: An interest group, also called special interest group, advocacy group, or pressure group, any association of individuals or organizations, usually formally organized, that, on the basis of one or more shared concerns, attempts to influence public policy in its favor.

5 - Political Parties: A political party is an organization that coordinates candidates to compete in a particular country's elections.

6 - The Press: the collective designation of media vehicles that carry out journalism and other functions of informative communication, in contrast to pure propaganda or entertainment communication.

Lecture Notes

- The First Amendment and the Political Institutions.
- Federalist 10.
- The Iron Law of Oligarchy.
- Democracy.
- Elections, Appointment, and the Separation of Powers.
- Elections in the U.S. Constitution.
- U.S. Election Code.
- Suffrage.
- Title 1 of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 - Voting Rights.
- The Voting Rights Act of 1965.
- Shelby v Holder.
- The Political Freedoms in the Texas Bill of Rights.
- Texas Constitution, Article 6, Suffrage.
- Texas Election Code.
- Search Campaign Finance Reports.
- Candidate Information.