A press release from the Texas Attorney General: Attor­ney Gen­er­al Ken Pax­ton Sues Five Cities Over Mar­i­jua­na Poli­cies Pre­vent­ing Enforce­ment of Texas Drug Laws

The state intends to clamp down on cities that are lenient on marijuana possession.

- Click here for it.

Texas Attorney General Ken Paxton has launched lawsuits against the cities of Austin, San Marcos, Killeen, Elgin, and Denton for adopting amnesty and non-prosecution policies that violate Texas laws concerning marijuana possession and distribution.

The five municipalities adopted ordinances or policies instructing police not to enforce Texas drug laws concerning possession and distribution of marijuana—an illicit substance that psychologists have increasingly linked to psychosis and other negative consequences. Texas Local Government Code forbids any political subdivision from adopting “a policy under which the entity will not fully enforce laws relating to drugs.” Further, the Texas Constitution notes that it is unlawful for municipalities to adopt ordinances that are inconsistent with the laws enacted by the Texas Legislature (Article 9, Section 5).

From TDCJ: Post Secondary Education - Annual In-Service Training

I have to take this in order to continue teaching in the prisons.

The Texas Department of Criminal Justice is one of the larger executive agencies in the state.

- Click here if you want to get an idea of the sorts of things I do.

:) 

From the Texas Tribune: Here’s what Texans need to know about the new FAFSA to get aid for college

You might just find this worthwhile.

- and a terrific example of fiscal federalism

- Click here for the article.


Key Terms: 

- federal application
- aid for college
- Free Application for Federal Student Aid
- Mandated by Congress in 2020
- formula used to award need-based aid.
- U.S. Education Department
- Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board
- Academic Success Program
- National Association of Student Financial Aid Administrators
- the old version was unduly complicated and acted as a barrier to college.
- funding formula
- Pell Grant
- sibling discount
- Brookings Institute
- high school counselors
- San Angelo ISD

Wikipedia: FAFSA.

Wikipedia: Higher Education Act of 1965.

Wikipedia: Higher Education Act of 1965 Title IV.

From Ballotpedia News: Texas Republican Party places 13 nonbinding advisory questions on the March primary ballot

This is one of the ways a political party figures out what future topics to focus on.

- Click here for the article. 


The Texas Republican Party has placed 13 nonbinding advisory questions on the March 5 primary ballot. The Texas Democratic Party does not plan on placing any questions on primary ballots this year. The last time they did was in 2020.

An advisory question is a type of ballot measure in which citizens vote on a non-binding question. The largest difference between an advisory vote and any other type of ballot measure is that the outcome of the ballot question will not result in a new, changed, or rejected law. Rather, the advisory question symbolically makes heard the general opinion of the voting population regarding the issue at hand.

The propositions address the following topics:
- Property taxes;
- The border and immigration;
- Foreign policy;
- Access to gold and silver for use as legal tender;
- Vaccine mandates;
- Closed primaries;
- Authority for the attorney general to prosecute election crimes;
- Right to choose any type of school for a child’s education and a voucher program;
- Proof of citizenship to register to vote; and
- Ban on Texas sale of land to citizens, governments, and entities from China, Iran, North Korea, and Russia.

The questions were adopted by the 64-member State Republican Executive Committee and published on Dec. 28.

The Texas Elections Code allows citizens to collect signatures for a petition to place a specific question before voters at the party’s general primary election. The required number of signatures is 5% of the total vote received by all candidates for governor in the party’s most recent primary election, which equates to 97,709 signatures for the 2024 ballot. The deadline to file the petition for the March 5, 2024, ballot was Dec. 10.

From the Texas Tribune: Texas GOP increasingly considers push to close its primaries

Texas now has open primaries. That could change.

- Click here for the article.


Key Terms: 

- Texas Republicans
- primary
- presidential nominee
- the ticket
- open primaries
- nonbinding ballot proposition
- Texas GOP Chair
- closed primaries
- National Conference of State Legislatures
- party affiliation
- unaffiliated
- independents
- campaign manager
- Super Tuesday
- crossover voting
- special election runoff
- open congressional seat
- GOP endorsers
- special elections

What is Shelby Park? What is Eagle Pass? What is Operation Lone Star?

Seems to be the center of the action on the border.

- Shelby Park.

Shelby Park is located on 47.4 acres (19.2 ha) of parkland on the banks of the Rio Grande River in downtown Eagle Pass, Texas, U.S. The park is owned and maintained by the City of Eagle Pass. It was created using Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) funds after the area was cleared of homes and businesses following major flooding in 1998 and named for Confederate General Joseph O. Shelby, who fled to Mexico through Eagle Pass in 1865.[1][2]

The park is adjacent to the Eagle Pass–Piedras Negras International Bridge.

. . . In January 2024, it was seized by the Texas National Guard as part of Operation Lone Star to prevent entry of migrants by installing barriers and razor wire, as well as arresting those who crossed for trespassing. This action was taken by Texas after a massive influx of illegal migrants in the area. It also inhibited the processing of the migrants by the Border Patrol.

- Click here for the map.


- Eagle Pass.

Eagle Pass was the first American settlement on the Rio Grande. Originally known as Camp Eagle Pass, it served as a temporary outpost for the Texas militia, which had been ordered to stop illegal trade with Mexico during the Mexican–American War. Eagle Pass is so named because the contour of the hills through which the Rio Grande flows bore a fancied resemblance to the outstretched wings of an eagle.

General William Leslie Cazneau (1807–1876) founded the Eagle Pass townsite in the 1840s. In 1850, Rick Pawless opened a trading post called Eagle Pass. In 1871, Maverick County was established, and Eagle Pass was named the county seat. During the remainder of the 19th century, schools and churches opened, the mercantile and ranching industries grew, and a railway was built.

 
- Operation Lone Star.

Operation Lone Star (OLS) is a joint operation between the Texas Department of Public Safety and the Texas Military Department along the United States–Mexico border in southern Texas. The operation started in 2021 and is currently ongoing. According to Texas Governor Greg Abbott, the operation is intended to counter a rise in illegal immigration, the illegal drug trade, and human smuggling. Between fiscal year 2020 and fiscal year 2021, migrant apprehensions had risen 278% along the US–Mexico border. As of April 2022, OLS was spending approximately $2.5 million per week and was expected to cost approximately $2 billion per year. Approximately 10,000 National Guard members were deployed in support of OLS at the height of the operation, with around 6,000 deployed as of November 2022.

From the Texas Tribune: Texas’ border standoff with feds continues, despite U.S. Supreme Court order

An important federalism question: Who has control of the border?

- Click here for the article.


Key Terms: 

- Texas National Guard
- state troopers
- Border Patrol
- Shelby Park
- Eagle Pass
- Rio Grande
- migrants
- U.S. Supreme Court
- Gov. Greg Abbott
- President Biden
- oath
- faithfully execute
- immigration laws
- enacted
- Congress
- federal crime
- illegal entry
- DHS general counsel
- The Texas Military Department
- Military Times
- The Texas Tribune
- anonymity
- Texas National Guard
- Texas State Guard
- adjutant general
- Claremont Institute
- Texas Attorney General
- District Judge
- 5th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals
- vacated
- U.S. Department of Justice
- U.S. Customs and Border Protection
- Texas Department of Public Safety

From Courthouse News Service: Nebraska judge orders creation of four Native American-majority voting districts

See if you comprehend the terms in this article

- Click here for the article.  


Key Terms: 

- Voting Rights Act
- violations
- federal judge
- re-drawn boundaries
- county supervisor districts.
- Winnebago Tribe
- Nebraska
- Omaha Tribe
- American Indian population
- Thurston County
- geographically compact
- majority
- districts.
- plaintiffs
- Board of Supervisor
- U.S. District Judge
- Robert F. Rossiter Jr.
- U.S. District Court for Nebraska
- American Indian majority districts.
- Native American Rights Fund.
- disenfranchisement

- Complaint: Winnebago and Omaha Tribes of Nebraska v Thurston County.

- Consent Decree: Winnebago and Omaha Tribes of Nebraska v Thurston County.

 https://houstonlanding.org/houston-launches-effort-to-build-new-animal-shelter-with-possible-west-side-satellite/

 https://www.houston.org/news/transportation-projects-transform-houston-roadways-accommodate-growth

Barbers Hill Independent School District vs Texas's CROWN Act

Lot's going on here, all wrapped up in a simple question regarding who or what gets to determine the extent of individual liberty. And is liberty is being curtailed, what is the justification for it?

Here are few things to consider: 

- Is the school district violating Darryl George's free expression? 
- Is Darryl George undermining the ability of the high school to do its work? 
- Is this really a free expression issue or is it an equal tr5eatment issue?

A few stories as background; 

- Texas judge sets trial date over school's suspension of student for dreadlocks.

- Texas made it illegal to punish students for dreadlocks. A school is testing the limits of the law.

- Abbott signs into law CROWN Act banning race-based hair discrimination.

 

Family of Black teen suspended from school for his hairstyle sues Texas leaders

From the NYT (Sept. 6, 2022): Judge Unseats Official Who Trespassed at Capitol on Jan. 6

The idea that the events of January 6th qualified as insurrection dates to this decision

- Click here for the article. 

A judge in New Mexico on Tuesday ordered a county commissioner convicted of participating in the Jan. 6 riot at the Capitol removed from office under the 14th Amendment, making him the first public official in more than a century to be barred from serving under a constitutional ban on insurrectionists holding office.

The ruling declared the Capitol assault an insurrection and unseated Couy Griffin, a commissioner in New Mexico’s Otero County and the founder of Cowboys for Trump, who was convicted earlier this year of trespassing when he breached barricades outside the Capitol during the attack. The judge’s order grabbed the attention of advocates across the country who have been pushing to use the 14th Amendment to disqualify former President Donald J. Trump and elected officials who worked with him in seeking to overturn the 2020 election from holding office in the future.

In his decision, Judge Francis J. Mathew of the New Mexico District Court said the insurrection on Jan. 6 included not only the mob violence that unfolded that day, but also the “surrounding planning, mobilization and incitement” that led to it.

“Mr. Griffin is constitutionally disqualified from serving,” the judge wrote.

Liberal groups have filed legal challenges in Arizona, New Mexico, North Carolina and Wisconsin seeking to block lawmakers accused of supporting the Jan. 6 rioters — including some prominent Republican members of Congress — from holding office under the Constitution. Until Tuesday, none had succeeded.


From Wikipedia: Couy Griffin.

Subsequent to his 2022 conviction for the trespassing charge, a suit was filed by the group, Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington (CREW), and the residents of New Mexico under Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution that would bar him from holding a public office for life due to his participation in the insurrection.

Following the Disqualification Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, District Court Judge Francis J. Mathew removed Griffin from public office on September 6, 2022, due to his participation in the insurrection. The debarment from holding public office for insurrection is "for life", he may never hold a public office again unless the debarment is overruled by a higher court or an Act of Congress. Removal of Griffin from his office marked the first instance of a democratically elected official being disqualified from holding public office under the constitutional provision since the disqualification of the socialist, Victor Berger, in 1919 by a special committee of Congress.

Griffin appealed the case to the New Mexico Supreme Court, which dismissed the appeal on procedural grounds in November, and reaffirmed this dismissal in February 2023.

From Democracy Docket: Trump and Section 3 of the 14th Amendment

More on this semester's second written assignment: 

- Click here for it.

. . . this 158-year old provision has propelled the nation into “uncharted territory.” Upon the announcement of former President Donald Trump’s 2024 presidential campaign, questions begin to surface about his eligibility under Section 3 given his actions leading up to the Jan. 6, 2021 insurrection. Across the country, dozens of challenges were filed with one overarching question: Is Trump disqualified from office under Section 3 of the 14th Amendment due to his involvement in the Jan. 6, 2021 insurrection?

- Could The 14th Amendment Kick Trump Off The Ballot?

What does the phrase "on the merits" mean?

If you're following the news on Trump v Anderson - among other cases - you'll hear this phrase alot.

What does it mean?

- Click here for one explanation: 

The phrase “on the merits” refers to a case whose decision rests upon the law as it applied to the particular evidence and facts presented in the case. This is in opposition to cases whose decisions rest upon procedural grounds. The distinction between decisions that rest on the merits rather than on procedural grounds is important because a decision on the merits is considered final and is thus bound by res judicata. If a decision is bound by res judicata, the parties involved in the case may not later raise those same claims in a subsequent case. Instead, a party that disagrees with the decision must appeal the decision, file a motion for a new trial, or a file a motion to reconsider. Decisions that do not rest on the merits, however, are not bound by res judicata because the claims were not properly heard. Thus, these claims may be brought forth in a subsequent case, excluding dismissals due to a failure to state a claim.

HLS Rappaport Forum: Trump v. Anderson: Does the 14th Amendment Disqualify Trump from Public Office?

A couple Harvard law profs go back and forth on the meaning of Section 3 of the 14th Amendment.

Each has submitted amicus briefs to the SOTUS regarding Trump v Anderson

Questions presented: 

- Does Section 3 apply to a former president?

- Is it self executing?

- Does it apply only to holding office as opposed to running for office?

- Did Trump engage in insurrection? 

Enjoy

From the U.S. Census: Types of U.S. Local Governments by State: 2022

- Click here for it. 

Small Dysfunctional Towns in Texas: Dickinson and Gunter

In Federalist 10, James Madison argued that political violence - or at least tyranny of the majority - was most likely occur in smaller governments than larger ones. This was because their size made it easier for a majority to form and act against an unpopular group or individual. 

These might be two examples: 

Dysfunction in Dickinson: Inside the growing political unrest of a small town near Houston.

There are allegations of dodging open records requests, a toxic City Hall culture, abuse of code enforcement powers, land grabs, money grabs, power grabs, shady business dealings, conflicts of interest, illegal meetings, wrongful terminations, obfuscation, retaliation, mismanagement of taxpayer dollars, flagrant lawbreaking — volleys that have only escalated in recent months with media attention, legal posturing and an effort to recall the mayor.

- “The most hated people in Gunter”: How the government of this North Texas town broke apart.

More than a century after the first locomotive passed through, political acrimony has torn the city apart. And the railroad is to blame.

For more than a month, the municipal government has been in a state of paralysis. All five city council members quit in December, citing a hostile work environment. The city manager is gone, too. And the vacant council spots won’t be filled for at least four months, when a special election is scheduled in May.

In the meantime, the mayor is unable to appoint even temporary replacements, because that would require a quorum of council members to show up and approve them. Those members, whose sparring with the mayor influenced their resignations, have refused to do so. And so basic city functions, like platting new homes or funding sewer improvements, are on hold.

The origins of the crisis can be traced back to a warm evening in May, when the council unanimously and without discussion approved a development agreement with BNSF Railway that would clear the way for a 949-acre rail facility, the largest development in the history of Gunter. The city had not told residents this was coming; officials never posted details on the city website, nor sought any public input.


For more: 

- Sundown towns.

From Madison Trust Company: Which U.S. Metropolitan Areas Have the Lowest (and Highest) Percentage of the Population Living Below the Poverty Level?

- Click here for the report.

 https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2024/01/25/americans-more-upbeat-on-the-economy-bidens-job-rating-remains-very-low/

Seen on the bulletin board at Turner High School - A remnant of the War on Poverty: The Migrant Education Program

Another example of cooperative federalism.
 

What is a Migrant Worker? 

A migrant worker is a person who migrates within a home country or outside it to pursue work. Migrant workers usually do not have an intention to stay permanently in the country or region in which they work. . . . There are approximately 14 million non-permanent workers in the United States. Today it is estimated that there are about 10.7 million undocumented migrant workers in the United States, many of which come from Mexico and other countries in Central America.

Do Migrant Workers have rights in the United States? 

As migrant workers, you have rights and resources to support you regardless of your immigration status. The U.S. Department of Labor is here to help and ensure that your workplace is safe and healthy, and that you receive full payment of wages.

What is the Migrant Education Program? 

States use program funds to identify eligible children and provide education and support services. These services include: academic instruction; remedial and compensatory instruction; bilingual and multicultural instruction; vocational instruction; career education services; special guidance; counseling and testing services; health services; and preschool services.

- Legislation and Policy.

The Migrant Education Program (MEP) is authorized by Title I, Part C of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965, as amended. There are several legislative, regulatory, and policy documents that apply to the operation of the MEP.

- TEA: Migrant Education Program- ESEA Title I, Part C.

The purpose of the Title I, Part C – Migrant Education Program (MEP) is to design and support programs that help migrant students overcome the challenges of mobility, cultural and language barriers, social isolation, and other difficulties associated with a migratory lifestyle. These efforts are aimed at helping migrant students succeed in school and successfully transition to postsecondary education or employment.

- Elementary and Secondary Education Act.

The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) was passed by the 89th United States Congress and signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on April 11, 1965. Part of Johnson's "War on Poverty", the act has been one of the most far-reaching pieces of federal legislation affecting education ever passed by the United States Congress, and was further emphasized and reinvented by its modern, revised No Child Left Behind Act. . . . The Every Student Succeeds Act retained some of the testing requirements established by the NCLB, but shifted accountability provisions to the states.

- War on Poverty.

The war on poverty is the unofficial name for legislation first introduced by United States President Lyndon B. Johnson during his State of the Union Address on January 8, 1964. This legislation was proposed by Johnson in response to a national poverty rate of around nineteen percent. The speech led the United States Congress to pass the Economic Opportunity Act, which established the Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO) to administer the local application of federal funds targeted against poverty. The forty programs established by the Act were collectively aimed at eliminating poverty by improving living conditions for residents of low-income neighborhoods and by helping the poor access economic opportunities long denied from them.

Democrats and Republicans don't seem to live in the same world

At least they don't see things the same way. Here is an example: 

Why? 

- Polarization, Democracy, and Political Violence in the United States: What the Research Says.

1 - American voters are less ideologically polarized than they think they are, and that misperception is greatest for the most politically engaged people.

2 - American politicians are highly ideologically polarized. In other words, they believe in and vote for different sets of policies, with little overlap. This trend has grown in a steady, unpunctuated manner for decades.

3 - Even though Americans are not as ideologically polarized as they believe themselves to be, they are emotionally polarized (known as “affective polarization”). In other words, they do not like members of the other party.

4 - Affective polarization is unlikely to be causing democratic backsliding or political violence on its own. The problem is not polarized emotions alone but how those feelings interact with voting systems, candidate incentives, and personal relationships.

5 - Similarly, affective polarization is not causing political violence directly. It is probably contributing to an environment that allows politicians and opinion leaders to increase violence targeted at politicians, election officials, women, and many types of minorities.

- From the Pew Research Center: A Deep Dive Into Party Affiliation.

Democrats hold advantages in party identification among blacks, Asians, Hispanics, well-educated adults and Millennials. Republicans have leads among whites – particularly white men, those with less education and evangelical Protestants – as well as members of the Silent Generation.

 https://youtu.be/wvrDAhk-RBc?si=F41jsGR7zYi6zSK5

From the Houston Chronicle: McNair family feuds in court over Cary McNair's attempt to take guardianship of Texans owner

Here's a look at one of our local courts, the probate court.

- Click here for the article. 

One of the sons of Houston Texans owner Janice McNair has asked a Harris County probate court to declare her incapacitated and appoint her a guardian, according to Harris County probate court records.

Robert Cary McNair Jr., a son of Janice McNair and the late Bob McNair, on Nov. 27 submitted an application of guardianship of an adult person and estate, according to court records.

The McNairs’ lawyers on Tuesday were scheduled to be in a Harris County Probate Court No. 1 for a hearing to decide if records related to the probate case should be sealed. It was unclear Tuesday afternoon what the outcome of the hearing was.

In an affidavit submitted to the court in December, Janice McNair said Cary McNair was “seeking to limit or terminate my rights and appoint himself as guardian of my estate.”

The affidavit accused Cary McNair, the CEO of McNair Interests, of using his role as fiduciary in the family’s companies to obtain “confidential financial and personal information.” In asking for the records to be sealed, Janice McNair called the application part of a “family dispute” and said public disclosure of more details would have a “serious impact on the Texans.”

- What is a probate court?

Probate court is a segment of the judicial system that oversees the execution of wills as well as the handling of estates, conservatorships, and guardianships. Probate court also handles the commitment of a person with psychiatric disabilities to institutions designed to help them.

Probate court ensures that a will is executed according to the wishes of the individual who has passed away. It makes sure that all debts owed are paid and that assets are distributed properly. The court oversees and usually must approve the activities of the executor appointed to handle these matters.

- Click here for Probate Courts of Harris County, Texas.

- Click here for Harris County Probate Court No. 1. 

How NASA Spent $10 Billion On The James Webb Telescope | True Cost

Monty Python – The Funniest Joke In the World

What do I want to be when I grow up? How do I get there? Part 3

This is the last batch. We will look more into these in upcoming lectures: 

a kindergarten teacher

youth mental health counselor

a sales role in medical device sales or technology

Neonatal Nurse.

international business

interior architecture

Sports Reporter

sports medicine doctor

starting my own business

computer scientist

medical and agricultural field

obstetrician and gynecologist

cardiologist

cardiac surgeon

nurse anesthetist

astrophysicist

veterinary oncologist

orthodontist

biologist or an accountant

Orthopedic Surgeon

exotic animal medicine

forensic psychologist

a nurse practitioner or a tattoo artist or be a police officer maybe even a welder.

therapist and author

Pharmaceutical Sales

chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, environmental engineering, or rehabilitation engineering.

a pilot

a dental hygienist

children’s trauma therapist

Forensic Investigator

a creative director in the film industry

sports media more specifically photography

kids and karate

game design

psychologist

elementary school teacher

art therapy or education

metrologist

large animal veterinarian

mechanical engineer

welder and a musician

a financial advisor

emergency practitioner in the medical field.

a chemical engineer

sports medicine physician

engineer (aerospace in specific) or a basketball player

counselor

lawyer

anesthesiologist assistant

animation

a head football coach

cardiovascular sonography

accountant

software developer / software Engineer

a pitcher for the New York Yankees

an entrepreneur

cybersecurity

The courts v the Texas executive branch

These types of conflicts are not unusual. 

Texas' executive officials regularly make decisions that are challenged in the federal courts. The top three involve federal courts, the last involves the Texas courts. Here's the latest: 

1 - Department of Homeland Security v. Texas.

Whether the Supreme Court should block an order by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 5th Circuit that generally bars federal Border Patrol agents from cutting or moving razor wire installed by Texas along a portion of the U.S.-Mexico border.

See also: U.S. Supreme Court says Texas can’t block federal agents from the border.

See also: In Eagle Pass, a tense border standoff between Texas and the federal government is reaching a crescendo.

2 - Texas Tribune: Facing pressure from judge, Texas reassigns workers to care for foster kids in unlicensed homes.

Texas child welfare officials are reassigning staff to focus on monitoring the unlicensed motels and rental homes that house some of the most vulnerable children in the foster-care system — a move officials said Monday is the latest attempt to comply with a years-old court order to keep those children safer.

Stephanie Muth, commissioner of the Texas Department of Family and Protective Services, told a federal district judge in Corpus Christi on Monday that her agency has trained about 30 experienced caseworkers to focus full-time on caring for children who have been removed from their homes but for whom the state has no licensed facility to place them.

3 - Texas Tribune: Appeals court blocks Texas from enforcing book rating law.

The 5th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals blocked the Texas Education Agency on Wednesday from enforcing a state law requiring booksellers to rate the explicitness and relevance of sexual references in materials they sell to schools.

The appellate court, one of the most conservative in the nation, sided with booksellers who sued the state after claiming House Bill 900 violated their First Amendment rights. The court affirmed a lower court’s decision to prevent TEA Commissioner Mike Morath from enforcing the 2023 law.

Wednesday’s decision was somewhat surprising since the appellate court blocked the lower court’s ruling in November. Addressing the reversal, Judge Don Willett with the 5th Circuit wrote that a “different panel of this court” had granted the state’s appeal to block that ruling.

The plaintiffs — which include bookshops in Houston and Austin, the American Booksellers Association, the Association of American Publishers and the Authors Guild — argue that it is logistically impossible and cost-prohibitive to comply with the law.

4 - Appeals court rules lawsuit seeking Jan. 6 emails from Texas governor, attorney general can move forward.

A lawsuit to force two Texas leaders to release years of their emails, including about the Jan. 6 attack on the U.S. Capitol, can move forward thanks to a Wednesday appeals court decision.

The Third Court of Appeals in Austin ruled that Attorney General Ken Paxton and Gov. Greg Abbott did not make the case for the lawsuit against them to be thrown out.

The decision was a major win for American Oversight, the Washington-DC based nonprofit that sued for access to the records after being rebuffed by the state. The group’s executive director called the decision “a tremendous victory for transparency.”

“American Oversight is seeking records related to matters of significant public interest and the appeals court was correct to reject this effort to evade accountability. We hope that Gov. Abbott and Attorney General Paxton will stop their delay and finally release these records to the public,” Heather Sawyer said in a statement.

Seinfeld: George, Marine Biologist

https://pueblo.gpo.gov/Publications/pdfs/6099.pdf

https://www.usa.gov/requirements-for-presidential-candidates

https://www.fec.gov/help-candidates-and-committees/registering-candidate/

https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/elections/presidential-election-process/requirements-for-the-president-of-the-united-states/

https://www.fec.gov/help-candidates-and-committees/registering-candidate/house-senate-president-candidate-registration/

From the Washington Post: Feds warn states displaying funny traffic signs: Proceed with caution

This applies to federalism and highway policy, among other things. 

Can the national government tell he states what type of signage they can use on interstate highways? The answer is almost certainly yes.

- Click here for the article.

Last month, the Federal Highway Administration released new guidance about traffic-safety signs, urging officials to avoid humor and pop-culture references that might confuse drivers. The guidelines in the 1,161-page Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices for Streets and Highways took effect Thursday, but federal officials are giving state agencies two years to adopt them. After days of confusion and outcry, federal officials on Thursday clarified that while the manual dictates that signs should be “simple, direct, brief, legible and clear,” it doesn’t prohibit them from being funny.

“The new edition does not include a ban on humor or pop culture references on changeable message signs,” an administration spokesperson said in an email. “Rather, it includes a recommendation to avoid the use of humor and pop culture references in changeable message signs that may confuse or distract drivers.”

“The new edition does not include a ban on humor or pop culture references on changeable message signs,” an administration spokesperson said in an email. “Rather, it includes a recommendation to avoid the use of humor and pop culture references in changeable message signs that may confuse or distract drivers.”

. . . The scientific research of humorous traffic-safety signs is mixed.

Tripp Shealy, a civil and environmental engineering professor at Virginia Tech, has studied how drivers respond to messages that employ humor or reference pop culture. He found that they usually thought the signs were effective and were rarely concerned about their appropriateness.

It’s more difficult to figure out if the message changed behavior, he told The Post last year. His researchers hooked 300 people to brain wave monitors to understand their responses to signs such as “Don’t let your tailgate end with a cell mate” and “Texting while driving? Oh cell no.” The results suggested that messages using jokes or wordplay sparked more brain activity.

“I think that’s why DOTs are using them, because they command more attention and drivers notice them,” Shealy said.

- Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices.
- Wikipedia: Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices.

Terminology

highways
Ohio Department of Transportation
spokesman
Federal Highway Administration
recommendation
federal guidelines
traffic safety manager
Colorado Department of Transportation
highway signs
traffic and safety engineer
Iowa Department of Transportation
civil and environmental engineering
The National Academy of Sciences’ Transportation Research Board

From the Houston Chronicle: Houston City Council to vote on $1.7M for lawsuit against city, Art Acevedo over fatal drug raid

There's lots going on here. 

At root, this is now a civil rights case filed in federal court against the city of Houston and the man who was police chief when the event in question occurred. 

It ties into a variety of terms and concepts throughout the 2305 and 2306 text.

The basic question posed seems to be whether a city can be held liable for the actions of police officers engaged in behavior that violates the civil rights - in this case the right to not get killed - of others.

- Click here for the article.

Houston City Council will vote Wednesday to put another $1.7 million toward fighting a lawsuit against the city and former Police Chief Art Acevedo in a drug raid gone wrong.

The lawsuit was originally brought forth January 2021 in the U.S. District Court for the Southern Division of Texas by Clifford Tuttle Jr., the uncle of Dennis Tuttle.

Dennis Tuttle and his wife, Rhogena “Reggie” Nicholas, were killed in a 2019 drug raid led by former Houston police officer Gerald Goines.

Goines said he had bought heroin at Dennis Tuttle and Nicholas’ Houston home through an undercover informant. Acevedo later said that was a lie, and that Goines never got drugs from the home.

Lawyers for Clifford Tuttle Jr. claim the raid violated Dennis Tuttle and Nicholas’ civil rights, according to the initial court filing.

“This untethered operation and its deadly conduct giving rise to this case is shocking, but it was sadly predictable and preventable,” the 2021 filing reads. “The people of the City of Houston deserve better. Dennis and Reggie deserved better. Now Dennis and Reggie deserve justice, as do their grieving families.”

The council will vote Wednesday to increase the cost of the legal services contract between the city and Houston-based firm Beck Redden LLP. The original cost of services was more than $1.2 million, according to a city council agenda note. If the council approves the extra funding, it will increase the cost of defending the lawsuit to more than $2.9 million.

Terminology: 

City Council
lawsuit
Police Chief
drug raid
U.S. District Court
Southern Division of Texas
police officer
undercover informant
Lawyers
civil rights
court filing
city council agenda
funding
litigation
dismiss the case
trial
legal fees
City Attorney
rogue officers
liability

How the Fez Transformed the Ottoman Empire

Can an article of clothing help bind people politically? 

That seems to be have been the purpose of the fez during the late Ottoman Empire.

Before you laugh, think about cowboy hats and wrangler jeans; tattoos, piercings, and black clothes; polo shirts; MAGA baseball caps. They all send messages about who you are and draw certain people either to you, or away from you.  

What are you wearing and what does it say about your tribe?

Disinformation Alert: Jefferson's Secret Message Regarding the Lewis & Clark Expedition

From the Library of Congress.

- Click here for the link.

President Thomas Jefferson sent a secret message to Congress on January 18, 1803, asking for “the appropriation of two thousand five hundred dollars, for the purpose of extending the external commerce of the United States.” This money was used to fund the Lewis & Clark expedition. Jefferson made the request in a secret message in order to hide his true intentions from the governments of Spain, France, and Great Britain.

Why the secrecy? Why disguise the nation's true intentions? 

That's worth a discussion. 

- Lewis and Clark Expedition.

- Louisiana Purchase.

- Mississippi Watershed.

- History of the Port of New Orleans.

- Corp of Engineers: History of the Mississippi Valley Division.

- Milestones in the History of U.S. Foreign Relations - 1801- 1829.

Certification, Accreditation, Licensing

More things to think about as you settle on a career choice.


- What is Professional Certification?

A certification is a third-party attestation of an individual's level of knowledge or proficiency in a certain industry or profession. They are granted by authorities in the field, such as professional societies and universities, or by private certificate-granting agencies. Most certifications are time-limited; some expire after a period of time (e.g., the lifetime of a product that required certification for use), while others can be renewed indefinitely as long as certain requirements are met. Renewal usually requires ongoing education to remain up-to-date on advancements in the field, evidenced by earning the specified number of continuing education credits (CECs), or continuing education units (CEUs), from approved professional development courses.


- What is Accreditation?

Accreditation is the independent, third-party evaluation of a conformity assessment body (such as certification body, inspection body or laboratory) against recognized standards, conveying formal demonstration of its impartiality and competence to carry out specific conformity assessment tasks (such as certification, inspection and testing).

Accreditation bodies are established in many economies with the primary purpose of ensuring that conformity assessment bodies are subject to oversight by an authoritative body. Accreditation bodies, that have been peer evaluated as competent, sign regional and international arrangements to demonstrate their competence. These accreditation bodies then assess and accredit conformity assessment bodies to the relevant standards.

An authoritative body that performs accreditation is called an 'accreditation body'. The International Accreditation Forum (IAF) and International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation (ILAC) provide international recognitions to accreditation bodies. There are many internationally recognized accreditation bodies approved by the IAF and ILAC.

- What is Licensing?

A license (US) or license (Commonwealth) is an official permission or permit to do, use, or own something (as well as the document of that permission or permit).

A license is granted by a party (licensor) to another party (licensee) as an element of an agreement between those parties. In the case of a license issued by a government, the license is obtained by applying for it. In the case of a private party, it is by a specific agreement, usually in writing (such as a lease or other contract). The simplest definition is "A license is a promise not to sue", because a license usually either permits the licensed party to engage in an illegal activity, and subject to prosecution, without the license (e.g. fishing, driving an automobile, or operating a broadcast radio or television station), or it permits the licensed party to do something that would violate the rights of the licensing party (e.g. make copies of a copyrighted work), which, without the license, the licensed party could be sued, civilly, criminally, or both.

- - Texas Department of Licensing and Regulation.

What do I want to be when I grow up? How do I get there? Part 2.

This is the latest batch - I'll add more about the requirements for these soon.

- Entertainment Lawyer.

- Therapist.

- Physical Therapist.

- Real Estate Agent.

- Project Manager

- Cardiovascular surgeon.

- Forensics.

- Pediatrician

- Nursing

- Cybersecurity

- Architectural Engineering

- Pharmacist

- Orthopedic trauma surgeon

- Neurosurgeon

- Information Technologies

- Computer Engineer

- Clinical Laboratory Scientist

- College Baseball Coach

- Professional Baseball Player

- Police Officer

- Poet

- Editor

- Software developer

- Nurse

- Pediatric oncologist/ hematologist

- Illustrator

- Ornithologist

From the Texas Tribune: School voucher supporter gave Gov. Greg Abbott $6 million in December

An example of campaign contributions and special interests.

- Click here for the article. 

Gov. Greg Abbott received a $6 million campaign contribution last month, which his campaign is calling the “largest single donation in Texas history.”

The check came from Jeff Yass, a national Republican megadonor whose priority issues include school vouchers. Abbott spent 2023 unsuccessfully pushing for a voucher program and is now targeting state House Republicans in the March primary who thwarted his agenda.

Abbott accepted the $6 million donation — dated Dec. 18 — in a little-used account, suggesting he was setting it aside from funds raised for his reelection campaign.

Yass is a billionaire from Pennsylvania who is co-founder and managing director of the Philadelphia-based investment firm Susquehanna International Group. He is also a top proponent of “school choice,” or programs that allow parents to use taxpayer dollars to subsidize private school costs.

Abbott has long been known as a fundraising powerhouse, but the $6 million contribution takes him to a new level. Abbott has previously made headlines for getting single donations of $1 million.

He raised $19 million total over the last six months.

Yass has been called the richest man in Pennsylvania, with an estimated net worth of nearly $29 billion, according to Forbes. His firm was an early investor in TikTok, the social media platform that Abbott banned on state phones and computers in 2022.

When it comes to politics, Yass has also been a multimillion-dollar donor to the Club for Growth, the national anti-tax group that has boosted Texas Republicans like U.S. Sen. Ted Cruz and U.S. Rep. Chip Roy of Austin.

__________

Who is Jeff Yass? 

Yass became a member of the board of directors of the libertarian Cato Institute in 2002 and now is a member of the executive advisory council. In 2015, Yass donated $2.3 million to a Super PAC supporting Rand Paul's presidential candidacy. In 2018 he donated $3.8 million to the Club for Growth, and $20.7 million in 2020.

Yass and his wife, Janine Coslett, are public supporters of school choice, with Coslett writing a 2017 opinion piece for The Washington Examiner in support of then-incoming Secretary of Education Betsy DeVos's views at school choice.

In November 2020, it was reported that Yass had donated $25.3 million, all to Republican candidates, and was one of the ten largest political donors in the US.

In March 2021, an investigation in Haaretz said that Jeff Yass and Arthur Dantchik were behind a large portion of the donations to the Kohelet Policy Forum in Israel.

In November 2021, he donated $5 million to the School Freedom Fund, a PAC that runs ads for Republican candidates running in the 2022 election cycle nationwide.

In June 2022 ProPublica claimed Yass has "avoided $1 billion in taxes" and is "pouring his money into campaigns to cut taxes and support election deniers".

__________

From Open Secrets: Contributions to Greg Abbott.

__________

Terminology: 

- campaign contribution
- megadonor
- school vouchers
- the March primary
- Club for Growth
- legislative priority
- AFC Victory Fund
- Super PAC

Vote For Pedro

From the New York Times: Where the Republican Presidential Candidates Stand on _________

This was published August 2023, but still provides a good look at the dominant issues of the 2024 presidential campaign. 

Let's get comfortable with these and understand he various positions different candidates take on them. I'll add info for Biden later. 

- Click here for the article: 

The issues: 

Abortion

China

Climate Change

Crime and Guns

Democracy

Economic Policy

Education

Health Care

Immigration

Impeaching Biden

Israel

Labor and Unions

Social Security and Medicare

Transgender Rights

Trump Investigations

War in Ukraine

What occupations can you not do with a felony on your record?

- Even after serving out their sentences, formerly incarcerated people often struggle to find jobs.

- HB 1508, 85th Leg., R.S. (2017).

- Consequences of Criminal Conviction.

- Guidelines for License Applicants with Criminal Convictions.

- What Are Restrictions on Convicted Felons in Texas?

- 50-State Comparison: Limits on Use of Criminal Record in Employment, Licensing & Housing.

- Students with a Criminal Record.

What do I want to be when I grow up? How do I get there? Part 1.

Lawyer:

- A lawyer (also called attorney, counsel, or counselor) is a licensed professional who advises and represents others in legal matters.

- Seven years of education following high school is typically required to obtain a law degree: four years of undergraduate school and three years of law school. Law schools generally require a bachelor's degree for admission. After graduating from a law school approved by the American Bar Association with a doctor of jurisprudence degree, candidates must then take the bar examination – a comprehensive test of knowledge in many areas of law. After passing this test, the person is licensed to practice law. In Texas, both applicants to law school and candidates for the bar exam are screened by the Texas Board of Law Examiners for qualifications and standards of moral character.

- Wikipedia: State Bar of Texas.

The State Bar of Texas (the Texas Bar) is an agency of the judiciary under the administrative control of the Texas Supreme Court. It is responsible for assisting the Texas Supreme Court in overseeing all attorneys licensed to practice law in Texas. With more than 100,000 active members, the State Bar of Texas is one of the largest state bars in the United States. Unlike the American Bar Association (ABA), the State Bar of Texas (SBOT) is a mandatory bar.

__________

Electrician:

- Most electricians learn through an apprenticeship, but some start out by attending a technical school. Most states require electricians to be licensed.

- Texas Occupations Code.


__________

Travel Agent: 

- Texas requires travel agents to obtain a Travel Insurance License, which involves meeting specific eligibility criteria and passing an examination. In addition, professional certifications from recognized travel organizations can enhance your credibility and elevate your career prospects.

- Broker.


__________

Nurse Practitioner:

A nurse practitioner (NP) is an advanced practice registered nurse and a type of mid-level practitioner. NPs are trained to assess patient needs, order and interpret diagnostic and laboratory tests, diagnose disease, formulate and prescribe medications and treatment plans. NP training covers basic disease prevention, coordination of care, and health promotion. One study found that although reasons for referrals to specialists are similar for both physicians and NPs, the quality of documentation in the referrals may be lower for NPs.

- Texas Occupations Code (the Nursing Practice Act)

- Application Forms - Advanced Practice Registered Nurse.


__________

Mechanical Engineer:

Mechanical engineering is the study of physical machines that may involve force and movement. It is an engineering branch that combines engineering physics and mathematics principles with materials science, to design, analyze, manufacture, and maintain mechanical systems. It is one of the oldest and broadest of the engineering branches.

- Texas Board of Professional Engineers: Basic Requirements for Licensure.

- Texas Occupations Code: Texas Engineering Practice Act.


__________

Industrial Engineer: 

Industrial engineering is an engineering profession that is concerned with the optimization of complex processes, systems, or organizations by developing, improving and implementing integrated systems of people, money, knowledge, information and equipment. Industrial engineering is central to manufacturing operations.

- Texas Occupations Code: Texas Engineering Practice Act.

- UH INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING: We are devising novel engineered systems that integrate humans, machines, and information technologies to enhance products, services, quality, efficiency, and resilience. With a focus in our academic programs on medicine, health, energy, security, operations optimization, and supply chains, an IE scholar is well prepared for future societal global challenges.


__________

Diagnostic Medical Sonographer:

Diagnostic medical sonography (DMS), a branch of diagnostic medical imaging, is the use of imaging by medical ultrasound for medical diagnosis. DMS uses non-ionizing ultrasound to produce 2D and 3D images of the body. In Canada, the credentialing for diagnostic medical sonography is the Canadian Association of Registered Ultrasound Professionals. In the United States, the credentialing body is the American Registry for Diagnostic Medical Sonography.

- From ACC: 

The Diagnostic Cardiovascular Sonography Program offers a two-year curriculum to prepare individuals for an allied health career in Adult Echocardiography or Vascular Sonography which are branches of Diagnostic Medical Sonography.

From the Texas Tribune: U.S. Supreme Court hears Texas case that could change how states compensate landowners for their property

Lot's going on here related to both 2305 and 2306.

- Click here for the article. 

Richie DeVillier’s property east of Houston has been owned by his family for generations and had never flooded, but that all changed when the state revamped Interstate 10.

His rice farm first flooded during Hurricane Harvey, and again during Tropical Storm Imelda.

The property faced substantial damage to its crops and livestock, and now turns into a lake every time there’s significant weather, an annual recurrence near the East Texas coast.

DeVillier sued Texas in 2020 and the case made it to the U.S. Supreme Court on Tuesday, where justices listened to arguments on whether he can seek federal relief.

Under the U.S. Fifth Amendment, governments have the right to take private property, but they must pay just compensation for it. DeVillier, along with several other Chambers County property owners who filed the suit, argues that the flooding, which stemmed from actions taken by the state, constitutes a form of government taking private property. The state has argued it should not need to pay because it did not intend to take the property, said Dan Charest, the original attorney who represented the property owners in state court.

Tuesday’s arguments focused on whether federal or state courts were the right venue for the case. But Charest said the Supreme Court’s ruling will likely broaden the Fifth Amendment’s interpretation and affect the nation as a whole.

If the Supreme Court finds in favor of the landowners, he said, the ruling could redefine what it means for a state to take someone’s property and set a standard for how it should compensate a property owner. If it rules in favor of the state, the court might broaden states’ ability to retract, restrict or eliminate remedies for landowners whose property is taken.

__________

Relevant terms: 

Interstate 10
Flooded
law suit
U.S. Supreme Court
federal relief
U.S. Fifth Amendment
the right to take private property
eminent domian
just compensation
Chambers County
property owners
actions taken by the state
taking private property
federal or state courts
the right venue
Fifth Amendment’s interpretation
standard
the legal nonprofit
Institute of Justice
the lead counsel
the plaintiffs
lower federal courts
state court
state attorneys
the Texas Attorney General’s Office
the petitioners
remanded
District Court
the Texas Constitution

__________

For More: 

- Scotusblog: Devillier v. Texas
- Texas Bill of Rights.
- United States Bill of Rights.

What are the Iowa caucuses and why are they so important | Planet Americ...

What are the Iowa Caucuses?

Aside from being the official start of the election season. 

Here are a few descriptions: 

- Pew Research Center: What to know about the Iowa caucuses:

(from 2020 - Republicans did not hold a caucus because Republican President Trump was the incumbent) While primaries are run much like general elections – lots of polling places, a secret ballot, many hours to vote – Iowa’s caucuses are more like neighborhood meetings. Starting at 7 p.m. in each of the state’s 1,678 voting precincts (and, new this year, 99 satellite locations in Iowa, around the country and overseas), Democratic voters will gather, debate issues and candidates with each other, and eventually cluster in “preference groups” to elect delegates to their county conventions. The precinct caucuses kick off a process which, several months from now, will result in 41 delegates being chosen to represent Iowa at the Democratic National Convention. The whole caucus process, which can take more than an hour, is nicely illustrated here. Iowa’s Democratic caucuses are open only to registered party members, not unaffiliated voters or those registered as Republicans or with other parties. However, people can register or change their party affiliation on caucus night if they want to participate.


- State Historical Society of Iowa: Caucuses and Elections.

Despite its smaller size and population, Iowa became very important in the election of a U.S. President. Each state has its own process for selecting delegates to national political conventions where the parties nominate their candidates. Iowa uses a caucus system. Members of each party meet together in local meetings called caucuses to select delegates to a county convention that chooses delegates to the district and state conventions. The state conventions are held in June and choose delegates to the national convention. Because the process takes many months, the local caucus has to meet in January or early February to get all the steps done. Because of that timing, the Iowa caucus becomes the first official step anywhere in the nation in selecting a president, and news reporters flock to the state to find out which candidates are ahead.

- Wikipedia:

 The Iowa caucuses are quadrennial electoral events for the Democratic and Republican parties in the U.S. state of Iowa. Unlike primary elections, where registered voters cast ballots at polling places on election day, Iowa caucuses are meetings where voters gather to discuss and select candidates for their registered party. Political parties hold the caucuses, in contrast to most state-run primaries. Both presidential and midterm elections in Iowa use caucuses. The caucuses are also held to select delegates to county conventions and party committees, among other party activities.

- Wikipedia - 2024 Iowa Democratic presidential caucuses.

- Wikipedia - 2024 Iowa Republican presidential caucuses.

__________

Useful related terms: 

- caucus.
- county conventions.
- delegate.
- national political conventions.
- party committees.
- permanent party organization.
- political convention.
- precinct.
- precinct caucuses.
- presidential preference primary.
- primary election.
- proportional representation.
- registered party members.
- registered voters.
- state political conventions.
- - Texas Democrats.
- - Texas Republicans.
- temporary party organization.

Rights of Nature

- Wikipedia: 

Rights of nature or Earth rights is a legal and jurisprudential theory that describes inherent rights as associated with ecosystems and species, similar to the concept of fundamental human rights. The rights of nature concept challenges twentieth-century laws as generally grounded in a flawed frame of nature as "resource" to be owned, used, and degraded. Proponents argue that laws grounded in rights of nature direct humanity to act appropriately and in a way consistent with modern, system-based science, which demonstrates that humans and the natural world are fundamentally interconnected.

This school of thought is underpinned by two basic lines of reasoning. First, since the recognition of human rights is based in part on the philosophical belief that those rights emanate from humanity's own existence, logically, so too do inherent rights of the natural world arise from the natural world's own existence. A second and more pragmatic argument asserts that the survival of humans depends on healthy ecosystems, and so protection of nature's rights in turn, advances human rights and well-being.

From a rights of nature perspective, most environmental laws of the twentieth century are based on an outmoded framework that considers nature to be composed of separate and independent parts, rather than components of a larger whole. A more significant criticism is that those laws tend to be subordinate to economic interests, and aim at reacting to and just partially mitigating economics-driven degradation, rather than placing nature's right to thrive as the primary goal of those laws. This critique of existing environmental laws is an important component of tactics such as climate change litigation that seeks to force societal action to mitigate climate change.


- Rights of Nature Law: 

Rights of nature law is the codification and other implementations of the legal and jurisprudential theory of the rights of nature. This legal school of thought describes inherent rights as associated with ecosystems and species, similar to the concept of fundamental human rights.[1][2][3][4]

The early 2000s saw a significant expansion of rights of nature law, in the form of constitutional provisions, treaty agreements, national and subnational statutes, local laws, and court decisions.[5] As of 2022, nature's rights laws exist in 24 countries,[6] (up from 17 in 2021)[7][8][9] including in Canada,[10] at least seven Tribal Nations in the U.S. and Canada, and over 60 cities and counties throughout the United States.[6][11][12][13] The total number of countries with either existing or pending rights of nature legal provisions was 29 as of 2022.

 

Links related to Dark Money and the Invisible Primary

Definitions of Dark Money: 


Open Secrets: Dark Money Basics: “Dark money” refers to spending meant to influence political outcomes where the source of the money is not disclosed.


Brennan Center for Justice: Dark Money: Citizens United created loopholes in campaign disclosure rules that have made so-called dark money — funds from groups that do not disclose their donors — disturbingly common. Powerful groups have poured more than $1 billion into federal elections since 2010, typically concentrating on the most competitive races.

Investopedia: Dark Money: What it is, How it Works, Examples: Dark money refers to political contributions received from donors whose identities are not disclosed. Dark money can have a significant influence on elections, particularly when used by “independent expenditure” group—commonly referred to as Super PACs—that are legally permitted to receive and spend an unlimited amount of contributions.

__________


Definitions of the Invisible, or Dark, Primary 


Wikipedia: Invisible primary: . . . the period between (1) the first well-known presidential candidates with strong political support networks showing interest in running for president and (2) demonstration of substantial public support by voters for them in primaries and caucuses. During the money primary candidates raise funds for the upcoming primary elections and attempt to garner support of political leaders and donors, as well as the party establishment. Fund raising numbers and opinion polls are used by the media to predict who the front runners for the nomination are. This is a crucial stage of a campaign for the presidency, as the initial frontrunners who raise the most money appear the strongest and will be able to raise even more money.


Political Dictionary: Invisible Primary: An invisible primary begins when a candidate formally announces their plans to run for office. It’s an opportunity to find out how much support they can gather before the actual primary race gets underway. In fact, the invisible primary can often make or break candidates – candidates who don’t get enough shows of support during the invisible primary often end up bowing out of the race, sometimes before the primary season even begins.

From 270 to Win: 2024 Presidential Election Calendar

- 2024 Presidential Election Calendar.

- 2024 Statewide Primary Calendar.

- What is a primary election? 

The United States is one of a handful of countries to select candidates through popular vote in a primary election system; most other countries rely on party leaders or paid up party members to select candidates, as was previously the case in the U.S. In modern politics, primary elections have been described as a vehicle for taking decision-making from political insiders to the voters, though political science research indicates that the formal party organizations retain significant influence over nomination outcomes. The selection of candidates for federal, state, and local general elections takes place in primary elections organized by the public administration for the general voting public to participate in for the purpose of nominating the respective parties' official candidates; state voters start the electoral process for governors and legislators through the primary process, as well as for many local officials from city councilors to county commissioners. The candidate who moves from the primary to be successful in the general election takes public office.

- What is a presidential primary election? 

Each of the 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and territories of the United States holds either primary elections or caucuses to help nominate individual candidates for president of the United States. This process is designed to choose the candidates that will represent their political parties in the general election.